Gravity and Light in the Newtonian Universe of Stars

Most conveniently available in Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles, transl. and ed. by Motte Andrew and revised by Cajori Florian (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1934), 596–7.

Ibid., 597.

Copies of the printed versions of the various sermons, and of the 1756 edition of the four letters from Newton to Bentley, are conveniently available in Cohen I. B. (ed.), Isaac Newton's papers and letters on natural philosophy (Cambridge, 1958). A more accurate text of the letters from Newton, together with the one surviving letter from Bentley to Newton, are to be found in The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. by Turnbull H. W. (Cambridge, 1959–77), iii.

Cohen (ed.), Newton's papers and letters (ref. 3), 292–3; Turnbull (eds), Correspondence (ref. 3), iii, 238.

Turnbull (eds), Correspondence (ref. 3), iii, 250–1.

Ibid., iii, 334.

In the Query 23 added to the Latin edition (London, 1706) of Newton's Opticks.

Alexander H. G. (ed.), The Leibniz—Clarke correspondence (Manchester, 1956).

For a detailed account of Newton's thinking, and references to sources, see Hoskin Michael , “Newton, Providence and the universe of stars”, Journal for the history of astronomy, viii (1977), 77–101; reprinted in Hoskin Michael , Stellar astronomy: Historical studies ([Cambridge], 1982), 71–95. For Gregory, Halley and Stukeley, see Hoskin Michael , “Stukeley's cosmology and the Newtonian origins of Olbers's Paradox”, Journal for the history of astronomy, xvi (1985), 1985–112.

Newton Isaac , Optice (London, 1706), Qu. 20.

Newton Isaac , Principia, 3rd edn (London, 1726), 527.

Newton's annotated copy of the second edition of the Principia is in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge. The passage reads: “… et fixarum systemata per gravitatem suam in se mutuo paulatim caderent nisi omnia consilio entis summi regerentur”.

For a transcription of the draft Theorem XV, see Hoskin , “Newton, Providence” (ref. 9).

For a discussion of Gregory's role, see pp. 91–93 of Hoskin, “Stukeley's cosmology” (ref. 9).

Gregory David , Astronomiae physicae et geometricae elementa (Oxford, 1702), 483; transl. from the second English edn (London, 1726), 856.

Gregory , Astronomiae … elementa (ref. 15), 159–60; second English edn, 288–90.

For a full account of Stukeley's role in this story, see Hoskin , “Stukeley's cosmology” (ref. 9).

Royal Society MS App. XXXVI, f. 67r.

Whiston William , Praelectiones astronomicae (Cambridge, 1707), Lectio IV; translation from the English edition, Astronomical lectures (London, 1715), 41–42.

Hoskin , “Stukeley's cosmology” (ref. 9), 82–83.

Royal Society MS App. XXXVI, ff. 69r–70r.

Ibid., f. 69v.

Ibid., f. 70r.

Stukeley William , Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's life, ed. by White A. Hastings (London, 1936), 14–15.

Hoskin , “Stukeley's cosmology” (ref. 9), 92.

Halley Edmond , “On the infinity of the sphere of the fix'd stars”, Philosophical transactions, xxxi (1720–21), 22–24. The date on which he read the paper is given by the Royal Society's Journal Book.

Halley Edmond , “Of the number, order and light of the fix's stars”, Ibid., 24–26.

de Chéseaux J.-P. L. , Traité de la comète qui a paru en décembre 1743 … (Lausanne, 1744), 223–9: Appendix, “Sur la force de la lumière, sa propagation dans l'éther, et sur la distance des étoiles fixes”.

Ibid., 225.

Olbers H. W. M. , “Über die Durchsichtigkeit des Weltraums”, in Berliner astronomisches Jahrbuch für das Jahr 1826 (published in 1823), 110–21.

Struve F. G. W. , Études d'astronomie stellaire (St Petersburg, 1847), p. 46 of notes.

Herschel J. F. W. , “Humboldt's Kosmos”, reprinted from The Edinburgh review, lxxxvii (1848) in Essays (London, 1857), 257–364, p. 285.

Cited by R. A. Proctor in his Other worlds than ours (London, 1870), 276.

Charlier C. V. L. , “How an infinite world may be built up”, Arkiv für Matematik, Astronomi och Fysik, xvi, no. 22 (1922).

Gore J. Ellard , The visible universe (London, 1893), 321: “The distance of even the nearest external universe is so great that its light has not yet reached the earth [though he thinks this unlikely]…. Beyond the bounds of our visible universe a ‘thinning out’ of the luminiferous ether may occur, ending in an absolute vacuum which would of course arrest the passage of all light from outer space”.

Gore himself, in Astronomical curiosities (London, 1909), 319, quotes approvingly from a review of an earlier book of his: “… theories and hypotheses are put forward for the purpose of explaining observed facts; when there are no facts to be explained, no theory is required. As there are no observed facts as to what exists beyond the farthest stars, the mind of the astronomer is a complete blank on the subject”.