Priority,Persuasion,and the Virtue of Perseverence: William Huggins's Efforts to Photograph the Solar Corona without an Eclipse

Clerke Agnes , A popular history of astronomy during the nineteenth century (New York, 1887); [ Dyson Frank W. ], “Sir William Huggins”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, lxxxvi-A (1910), pp. i–xix; Campbell W. W. , “Sir William Huggins”, Annual report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1910, 307–17; Newall H. F. , “Sir William Huggins”, Science progress, ν (1910), 173–90; idem, “William Huggins”, Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society [hereafter: MNRAS], lxxi (1911), 261–70; Maunder E. W. , Sir William Huggins and spectroscopic astronomy (London, 1913); Mills Charles E. and Brooke C. F. , A sketch of the life of Sir William Huggins (Richmond, 1936).

Becker Barbara J. , “Eclecticism, opportunism, and the evolution of a new research agenda: William and Margaret Huggins and the origins of astrophysics”, Ph.D. dissertation. The Johns Hopkins University, 1993.

William Huggins was awarded honorary degrees from the universities of Cambridge (1870), Oxford (1871), Edinburgh (1871), Dublin (1886), St Andrews (1893), and various foreign countries. He received the Royal Society's Royal (1866), Rumford (1880), and Copley (1898) Medals. In 1867, the Royal Astronomical Society awarded him, with W. A. Miller, its prestigious Gold Medal, and in 1885, he became one of the few in the history of that society to be so honoured a second time. He received international recognition as well. In 1871, the Emperor of Brazil, Pedro II, bestowed on him the Order of the Rose. The Académie des Sciences in Paris awarded him the Lalande Prize (1882), the Valz Prize (1883), and the Janssen Gold Medal (1888). In 1901, he received the Draper Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. In 1897, he was knighted by Queen Victoria, and was among the first twelve individuals awarded the prestigious Order of Merit by King Edward VII (1902).

The published record of William Huggins's solar investigations includes: Astronomical register , ii (1864), 4–6 and 98–101; Huggins W. , “Results of some observations on the bright granules of the solar surface, with remarks on the nature of these bodies”, MNRAS, xxvi (1866), 260–5; “Mr. Huggins' observatory”, MNRAS, xxviii (1868), 86–88; Huggins W. , “On a possible method of viewing the red flames without an eclipse”, MNRAS, xxix (1868), 4–5; idem, “Further observations on the spectra of the Sun, and of some of the stars and nebulae, with an attempt to determine therefrom whether these bodies are moving towards or from the Earth”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, xvi (1868), 382–6; “Mr. Huggins' observatory”, MNRAS, xxix (1869), 142–3; Huggins W. , “Note on a method of viewing the solar prominences without an eclipse”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, xvii (1869), 302–3; “Mr. Huggins' observatory”, MNRAS, XXX (1870), 100; “Mr. Huggins' observatory”, MNRAS, xxxii (1872), 156–7; Huggins W. , “Note on the wide-slit method of viewing the solar prominences”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, xxi (1873), 127–8; idem, “On a cyclonic arrangement of the solar granules”, MNRAS, xxxviii (1878), 101–2; idem, “On a method of photographing the solar corona without an eclipse”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, xxxiv (1882), 409–14; “Mr. Huggins' observatory, Upper Tulse Hill”, MNRAS, xliii (1883), 199–200; “Dr. Huggins' method of photographing the solar corona without an eclipse”, MNRAS, xliii (1883), 231–2; Huggins W. , “On some results of photographing the solar corona without an eclipse”, Report of the British Association, Southport (1883), 346–51; “Mr. Huggins' observatory, Upper Tulse Hill”, MNRAS, xliv (1884), 171–2; “Dr. Huggins' method of photographing the solar corona without an eclipse”, MNRAS, xliv (1884), 203; Huggins W. , Bakerian Lecture, “On the corona of the Sun”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, xxxix (1885), 108–35; idem, “On the solar corona”, Proceedings of the Royal Institution, xi (1885), 202–14; idem, “The Sun's corona”, The nineteenth century, xvii (1885), 676–89; idem, “On the limit of solar and stellar light in the ultra-violet part of the spectrum”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, xlvi (1889), 133–5; and idem, “A suggested explanation of the solar corona”, Astrophysical journal, xii (1900), 279–80.

See Bartholomew C. F. , “The discovery of the solar granulation”, Quarterly journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, xvii (1976), 263–89.

Huggins W. , 10 November 1866, Notebook 2, Huggins Collection, Whitin Observatory, Wellesley College.

In preparation for this expedition, Huggins developed a novel attachment for the spectroscope to enable him to record spectral lines automatically. See Huggins W. , “On a registering spectroscope”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, xix (1871), 317–8.

Huggins W. , 19 December 1868, Notebook 2; Lockyer Norman J. , “Notice of an observation of the spectrum of a solar prominence”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, xvii (1868), 91–92; idem, “Spectroscopic observation of the ‘red prominences’ without an eclipse of the Sun”, MNRAS, xxix (1869), 162–3; Huggins W. and Janssen Jules Pierre , “On the solar protuberances”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, xvii (1868), 276–7; Huggins W. , “The total solar eclipse of August 1868, Part II”, Astronomical register, vii (1869), 131–4.

Huggins W. , “The new astronomy: A personal retrospect”, The nineteenth century, xli (1897), 907–29.

See Anstis Frank , “The scientific work of Sir William Huggins”, M.Sc. thesis, University College, London, 1961; Meadows A. J. , Early solar physics (Oxford, 1970), chap. 2; Murden James , “Some early attempts at photographing the daylight corona”, Journal of the British Astronomical Association, lxxxiii (1973), 275–9; Hufbauer Karl , Exploring the Sun: Solar science since Galileo (Baltimore, 1991); Becker , “Eclecticism” (ref. 2), chap. 6.

In 1931, nearly fifty years after William Huggins's first effort to photograph the solar corona without an eclipse, the young French astronomer, Bernard Lyot, obtained acceptance from fellow astronomers for the authenticity of his photographs of the corona during artificial eclipses, and for the virtual equivalence of these photographs to those obtained during real eclipses. See, Hufbauer Karl , “Artificial eclipses: Bernard Lyot and the coronograph, 1929–1939”, Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences, xxiv (1994), 337–94.

There are six observatory notebooks that record work done at Huggins's Tulse Hill observatory in the period 1856–1901. They are held in the Huggins Collection, Whitin Observatory, Wellesley College. For a summary of their contents, see Morgan Julie , “The Huggins Archives at Wellesley College”, Journal for the history of astronomy, xi (1980), 147.

Huggins's private correspondence relating to the subject of his efforts to photograph the solar corona can be found in the following collections: George Gabriel Stokes papers, Cambridge University Library; Royal Astronomical Society correspondence, Royal Astronomical Society Library; Arthur Schuster papers, Royal Society Library; Mary Lea Shane Archives of the Lick Observatory, University of California-Santa Cruz; Edward Pickering papers, Harvard University Library; David Peck Todd papers, Yale University Library; Charles A. Young papers, Dartmouth College Library.

Clerke , A popular history (ref. 1), 226.

Huggins W. to Stokes George , 7 March 1882, Add MS 7656.H1148, Stokes papers; Huggins W. to Christie W. C. , 7 March 1882, Royal Astronomical Society correspondence. Margaret Lindsay Huggins, 7 March 1882, Notebook 2.

Draper Henry , “On photographs of the spectrum of the nebula in Orion”, American journal of science, 3rd ser., xxiii (1882), 339–41.

‘The Eclipse Expedition’, London Times, 19 May 1882.

It would be interesting to subject Schuster's claim to scrutiny in light of modern views regarding the sources of visible light produced in the Sun's upper atmosphere. One component, a faint continuous spectrum, is recognized by astronomers today as coming from photospheric light scattered from free-electrons in the corona. It mimics the visible solar spectrum in relative intensity of individual wavelengths. Thus, it has a maximum around 4900Å which is in the yellow-green region of the spectrum. Another component of the modern visible corona is an emission spectrum generated by high-temperature ions in the corona. It contains a few discrete bright lines, many of which are only visible during periods of unusual solar activity. The most prominent coronal emission line is the green “1474” line, first observed by Charles A. Young in 1869.

Huggins M. L. , 15 December 1882, Notebook 2. There are no notebook entries contemporaneous with any of the Hugginses' efforts to photograph the solar corona in 1882. Indeed, the notebooks contain no regular entries from June 1882 until April 1886, thus making Margaret's 15 December lengthy summary of their coronal work a notable exception.

Flaws in the violet glass encouraged the Hugginses to change the absorbing material to a smooth glass container filled with a solution of potassium permanganate.

Huggins M. L. , 15 December 1882, Notebook 2.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 12 November 1882, Add MS 7656.H1152, Stokes papers.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 17 December 1882, Add MS 7656.H1155, Stokes papers.

The letter from Stokes does not survive; however, Huggins cited a brief excerpt from it as evidence in support of his interpretation of the photographs in his Proceedings paper: “The appearance is certainly very corona-like, and I am disposed to think it probable that it is really due to the corona.” See Huggins William , “On some results of photographing the solar corona without an eclipse”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, xxxiv (1882), 409–14, pp. 412–13.

Huggins W. to Schuster Arthur , 2 December 1882, Sc. 96, Schuster papers.

Abney William de W. to Huggins W. , 15 December 1882, inserted in 15 December 1882, Notebook 2. This letter is reproduced with a few alterations in Huggins , “On some results” (ref. 24), 414.

Huggins substituted the word “causes” for “defects” when citing this letter in his Proceedings paper.

This anecdote is included in a series of undated notes Margaret added to her lengthy 15 December 1882 notebook entry and which, given the dates mentioned in them, were probably written in 1888. Its inclusion at this late date indicates the weight the Hugginses placed upon Abney's initial response to seeing their photographs.

Huggins , “On some results” (ref. 24); [ Christie William H. M. ], “Dr. Huggins' method of photographing the solar corona without an eclipse”, Report of the Council, MNRAS, xliii (1883), 231–2, p. 232.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 13 May 1883, Add MS 7656.H1159, Stokes papers; Huggins W. to Holden Edward S. , 14 September 1883, Mary Lea Shane Archives.

This eclipse, with a totality approximately 5½ minutes long, is a member of Saros 136, a family of long-duration eclipses, including that of 11 July 1991. See Clerke , A popular history (ref. 1), 230–3; Ottewell Guy , The under-standing of eclipses (Greenville, 1991), 87.

“Dr. Huggins' method of photographing the solar corona without an eclipse”, Report of the Council, MNRAS, xliv (1884), 203. See also Lawrance H. A. to Stokes G. , 14 September 1883, included in W. Huggins to Holden, 9 October 1883, Mary Lea Shane Archives.

See Huggins W. to Stokes , 12 December 1883, Add MS 7656.H1167, Stokes papers.

Ibid.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 2 January 1884, Add MS 7656.H1168, Stokes papers.

Huggins W. to Wesley William , 5 May 1884, Royal Astronomical Society correspondence.

Huggins W. to Knobel E. B. , 9 May 1884, Royal Astronomical Society correspondence.

“Dr. Huggins's method of photographing the solar corona without an eclipse”, Report of the Council, MNRAS, xlv (1885), 258–9.

The eruption of Mexico's El Chichon in March and April 1982, for example, put so much material into the upper atmosphere (particularly in the Northern Hemisphere) that the total lunar eclipse in July of that year was notable both for its unusual darkness and the asymmetry of its appearance. Mt Pinatubo's eruption in June 1991 caused colourful sunsets the world around and lengthened the average evening twilight for many months as sunlight scattered from particles located as much as sixteen miles above the Earth's surface. See Meinel Aden and Meinel Margone , Sunsets, twilights, and evening skies (Cambridge, 1983), 39–61.

Huggins W. , “On the solar corona”, Proceedings of the Royal Institution, xi (1885), 202–14, p. 209.

The Reverend S. E. Bishop, writing shortly after the Krakatoa eruption in September 1883, noted a “very peculiar corona or halo” around the Sun with many characteristics similar to those remarked upon by Woods. Now known as Bishop's Ring, such unusual atmospheric effects are most often observed when fine volcanic ash has been injected into the upper atmosphere. See Meinel and Meinel , Sunsets (ref. 39), 79–81, and Plate 8–1. In Huggins's circle, William Abney attributed the aureola to ice crystals, although others, whom Huggins called the “Krakatowa-ites”, blamed it on the volcano. See Huggins W. to Holden , 29 October 1884, Mary Lea Shane Archives.

op. cit. (ref. 38).

Huggins W. to Stokes , 4 October 1884, Add MS 7656.H1171, Stokes papers.

Huggins W. to Holden , 29 October 1884, Mary Lea Shane Archives.

Campbell Wallace William , A brief account of the Lick Observatory of the University of California (Berkeley, 1927), 3–17.

No routine observations were carried out at the Lick Observatory until all the construction and instrument-making was completed in 1888. Its official scientific operation began on 1 June 1888. Even if Woods had wanted to forego his opportunity to work with Gill at the Cape, there would have been little to do at the Lick for almost four more years! See, Campbell , A brief account (ref. 45), 6–11; Osterbrock Donald E. Gustafson John R. , and Unruh Shiloh W. J. , Eye on the sky: Lick Observatory's first century (Berkeley, 1988), 38–43, 53–63.

op. cit. (ref. 38).

Krisciunas Kevin , Astronomical centers of the world (Cambridge, 1988), 195–6.

Huggins , “On the solar corona” (ref. 40).

Huggins W. to Stokes , 4 May 1885, Add MS 7656.H1175, Stokes papers.

Huggins told Stokes he had “begged” Gill to telegraph him immediately, “which he can do free of expense, in case of scientific urgency”.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 4 May 1885, Add MS 7656.H1175, Stokes papers.

Pickering William H. , “An attempt to photograph the corona”, Science, v (1885), 266–7, p. 266.

See Huggins W. to Pickering Edward , 12 March and April/May 1884, Pickering papers; Huggins W. to Holden , 2 June 1884, Mary Lea Shane Archives; Huggins W. to Stokes , 4 September 1885, Add MS 7656.H1188, Stokes papers.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 20 April 1885, Add MS 7656.H1174, Stokes papers.

See Young Charles A. , “An attempt to photograph the corona”, Science, v (1885), 307. Young's letter was dated 8 April.

Huggins W. , “An attempt to photograph the solar corona”, Science, v (1885), 397–8.

Huggins W. to Wesley , 26 April 1885, Royal Astronomical Society correspondence.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 19 May 1885, Add MS 7656.H1176, Stokes papers.

Ibid.

Huggins W. , “On the corona of the Sun — The Bakerian Lecture”, Proceedings of the Royal Society, xxxix (1885), 108–35, pp. 115–16. It is possible that Stokes merely let the issue drop. In preparing the written text of his lecture for publication, Huggins indirectly raised the question to Stokes again: “I presume it is not desirable to say more about the Riffel plates, than the short quotation I have given of Mr. Woods' own words.” W. Huggins to Stokes, 5 July 1885, Add MS 7656.H1181, Stokes papers.

Pickering W. H. , “An attempt to photograph the solar corona without an eclipse”, Science, vi (1885), 131–3, p. 132.

Huggins claimed he was able to obtain four images of the Moon between 11.30 a.m. and noon. He therefore believed that “Pickering is fully disposed of”. To bolster his own view that Pickering had no practical or theoretical foundation for his claims, Huggins consulted his photographic expert, William Abney, who had become quite an authority on the ability of various photographic processes to detect slight gradations in the intensity of light emitted by the object being photographed. See Huggins W. to Stokes , 4 September 1885, Stokes papers.

Ibid.

The letter from Gill is cited in Huggins W. to Todd Peck David , 2 November 1885, Todd papers, and Huggins W. to Holden , 19 November 1885, Mary Lea Shane Archives.

See Huggins W. to Wesley , n.d. and 14 November 1885, Royal Astronomical Society correspondence; Huggins W. to Young , 20 November 1885, Young papers.

Ranyard Arthur C. , “On the connection between photographic action, the brightness of the luminous object and the time of exposure, as applied to celestial photography”, MNRAS, xlvi (1886), 305–9.

Ibid., 305.

See, for example, Huggins W. to Stokes , 22 and 26 January 1886, Add MS 7656.H1194–1195, Stokes papers.

Trouvelot's letter has not been located. It is referred to in W. Huggins to Stokes, 7 February 1886, Add MS 7656.H1197, Stokes papers.

Gill was also trying to photograph the new moon in front of the corona. See Gill David to Huggins W. , 2 March 1886, Add MS 7656.H1199a, Stokes papers.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 16 May 1886, Add MS 7656.H1201, Stokes papers.

Clerke, A popular history (ref. 1), 235–6.

Huggins W. , “Photography of the solar corona”, Nature, xxxiv (1886), 469–70. Huggins wrote this note to Nature and a similar letter to the London Times (13 September 1886) because he wished “to be the first to make known this untoward result”.

He was encouraged in this view by Andrew Ainslie Common, an ardent celestial photographer. See Huggins , “Photography of the solar corona” (ref. 74), 470.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 23 September 1886, Add MS 7656.H1202, Stokes papers.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 19 October 1888, Add MS 7656.H1224, Stokes papers.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 7 November 1888, Add MS 7656.H1229, Stokes papers.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 27 December 1888, Add MS 7656.H1231, Stokes papers.

Becker , “David Gill”, in History of astronomy: An encyclopedia, ed. by Lankford John (New York, 1997), 235.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 13 July 1889, Add MS 7656.H1248, Stokes papers.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 27 April 1889, Stokes papers, Add MS 7656.H1243.

See, for example, Huggins W. to Holden , 12 April 1889; Holden to Huggins W. , 4 May 1889; Huggins W. to Holden , 20 May 1889 and 13 July 1889; Huggins M. L. to Holden , 16 July 1889; Holden to Huggins W. , 28 August 1889, Mary Lea Shane Archives. Also, Huggins W. to Young , 12 April and 14 July 1889, Young papers.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 13 July and 28 September 1889, Add MS 7656.H1252, Stokes papers.

Huggins W. to Stokes , 1 July 1892, Add MS 7656.H1268, Stokes papers.

Hale had serious, but generally friendly, disagreements with Huggins over the validity of the theoretical basis of Huggins's photographic method. See Hale Ellery George , “On some attempts to photograph the solar corona without an eclipse”, Astronomy and astrophysics, iii (1894), 662–87, pp. 664–6; idem, “Note on the exposure required in photographing the solar corona without an eclipse”, Astrophysical journal, i (1895), 438–42; and, idem, “Note on the Huggins method of photographing the solar corona without an eclipse”, Astrophysical journal, ii (1895), 77.

Huggins W. to Todd , 6 December 1895, Todd papers.