Despite the well-documented benefits of environmental enrichment (EE) in animal models of depression, the application of these findings to humans is complex due to individual variability and environmental constraints.
Aim:
This study aims to investigate the relationship between EE and depression by comparing demographic features and EE levels between individuals with depression and controls.
Methods:
A cross-sectional, comparative retrospective study was conducted in a specialized psychiatric facility in Mexico City. Ninety-six control subjects and 86 individuals with major depression (MD) were recruited. Participants with MD were diagnosed according to DSM-5 criteria and scored a minimum of 13 on the 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS). Demographic information and EE were assessed using the Environmental Enrichment indicator (EEI), which includes cognitive, social, and physical activity dimensions. Statistical analyses included chi-square tests, t-tests, and logistic regression to identify associations between demographic variables, EE, and depression.
Results:
The findings indicated that individuals with MD had lower EE levels compared to controls. Significant predictors of depression included low EE, being unemployed or a housewife, and female gender, while higher education decreased depression risk. Low EE mediated the relationship between occupation and depression. Additionally, the impact of demographic factors on depression was also strongly influenced by the levels of EE.
Conclusion:
Socio-demographic characteristics, such as female gender and occupation were associated with depression; additionally, a low level of EE was a predictor of depression. A higher education diminished the depression risk.
AgyapongB.ShalabyR.HayK.PattisonR.EboreimeE.KorthuisM.WeiY.AgyapongV. I. O. (2023). Exploring sociodemographic characteristics, adverse childhood experience, and mental health history as predictors of anxiety and depression among adolescents and young adults: Findings from the MoreGoodDays Support Program in Alberta, Canada. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), Article 749. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090749
2.
AltemusM.SarvaiyaN.Neill EppersonC. (2014). Sex differences in anxiety and depression clinical perspectives. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 35(3), 320–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.05.004
3.
AmiriS. (2022). Unemployment associated with major depression disorder and depressive symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 28(4), 2080–2092. https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2021.1954793
4.
BerlangaC.CortésJ.BauerJ. (1991). Adaptación y validación de la Escala de Depresión de Carroll en español. Salud Mental, 15, 36–40.
5.
BjellandI.KrokstadS.MykletunA.DahlA. A.TellG. S.TambsK. (2008). Does a higher educational level protect against anxiety and depression? The HUNT study. Social Science & Medicine, 66(6), 1334–1345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.12.019
6.
BrackeP.van de StraatV.MissinneS. (2014). Education, mental health, and education-labor market misfit. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 55(4), 442–459. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146514557332
7.
BrenesJ. C.FornagueraJ.Sequeira-CorderoA. (2020). Environmental enrichment and physical exercise attenuate the depressive-like effects induced by social isolation stress in rats. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 11, Article 804. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.00804
8.
BrometE.AndradeL. H.HwangI.SampsonN. A.AlonsoJ.de GirolamoG.de GraafR.DemyttenaereK.HuC.IwataN.KaramA. N.KaurJ.KostyuchenkoS.LépineJ.-P.LevinsonD.MatschingerH.MoraM. E. M.BrowneM. O.Posada-VillaJ., . . . KesslerR. C. (2011). Cross-national epidemiology of DSM-IV major depressive episode. BMC Medicine, 9, Article 90. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-9-90
9.
Durán-CarabaliL. E.ArcegoD. M.SanchesE. F.OdorcykF. K.MarquesM. R.TostaA.ReichertL.CarvalhoA. S.DalmazC.NettoC. A. (2019). Preventive and therapeutic effects of environmental enrichment in Wistar rats submitted to neonatal hypoxia-ischemia. Behavioural Brain Research, 359, 485–497.
10.
Flores-RamosM.Yoldi-NegreteM.Guiza-ZayasR.Ramírez-RodríguezG. B.Montes-CastrejónA.FresánA. (2022). An Indicator of environmental enrichment to measure physical, social and cognitive activities in human daily life. BMC Psychiatry, 22(1), Article 295. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-03989-7
11.
FreundJ.BrandmaierA. M.LewejohannL.KirsteI.KritzlerM.KrügerA.SachserN.LindenbergerU.KempermannG. (2013). Emergence of individuality in genetically identical mice. Science, 340(6133), 756–759. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1235294
12.
Fuller-IglesiasH. R.RajbhandariS. (2016). Development of a multidimensional scale of social integration in later life. Research on Aging, 38(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027515581428
13.
FureixC.TrevarthenA. C.FinneganE. M.BučkováK.PaulE. S.MendlM. T. (2022). Do greater levels of in-cage waking inactivity in laboratory mice reflect a spontaneous depression-like symptom? A pharmacological investigation. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 212, Article 173311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173311
14.
GaoZ. K.ShenX. Y.HanY.GuoY.-S.YuanM.BiX. (2022). Enriched environment effects on myelination of the central nervous system: Role of glial cells. Neural Plasticity, 2022, Article 5766993. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/5766993
15.
Gedda-MuñozR.Fuentez CamposÁ.Valenzuela SakudaA.Retamal TorresI.Cruz FuentesM.BadicuG.Herrera-ValenzuelaT.Valdés-BadillaP. (2023). Factors associated with anxiety, depression, and stress levels in high school students. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 13(9), 1776–1786.
16.
GubertC.HannanA. J. (2019). Environmental enrichment as an experience-dependent modulator of social plasticity and cognition. Brain Research, 1717, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2019.03.007
17.
HamiltonM. (1967). Development of a rating scale for primary depressive illness. The British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 6(4), 278–296. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1967.tb00530.x
18.
HasinD. S.SarvetA. L.MeyersJ. L.SahaT. D.RuanW. J.StohlM.GrantB. F. (2018). Epidemiology of adult DSM-5 major depressive disorder and Its Specifiers in the United States. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(4), 336–346. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4602
19.
HattoriS.HashimotoR.MiyakawaT.YamanakaH.MaenoH.WadaK.KunugiH. (2007). Enriched environments influence depression-related behavior in adult mice and the survival of newborn cells in their hippocampi. Behavioural Brain Research, 180(1), 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2007.02.033
20.
HeisselA.HeinenD.BrokmeierL. L.SkarabisN.KangasM.VancampfortD.StubbsB.FirthJ.WardP. B.RosenbaumS.HallgrenM.SchuchF. (2023). Exercise as medicine for depressive symptoms? A systematic review and meta-analysis with meta-regression. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 57(16), 1049–1057. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-106282
21.
HervieuxV.IversH.FernetC.BironC. (2022). The role of job control and job demands in becoming physically active during the COVID-19 pandemic: A Three-wave longitudinal study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(4), Article 2168. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042168
22.
JanssenH.AdaL.BernhardtJ.McElduffP.PollackM.NilssonM.SprattN. J. (2014). An enriched environment increases activity in stroke patients undergoing rehabilitation in a mixed rehabilitation unit: A pilot non-randomized controlled trial. Disability and Rehabilitation, 36(3), 255–62. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2013.788218
23.
KempermannG. (2019). Environmental enrichment, new neurons and the neurobiology of individuality. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 20(4), 235–245.
24.
KennedyS. H. (2008). Core symptoms of major depressive disorder: Relevance to diagnosis and treatment. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 10(3), 271–277. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2008.10.3/shkennedy
25.
KesslerR. C.McGonagleK. A.ZhaoS.NelsonC. B.HughesM.EshlemanS.WittchenH. U.KendlerK. S. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51(1), 8–19. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950010008002
26.
KhalilM. H.SteemersK. (2024). Housing environmental enrichment, lifestyles, and public health indicators of neurogenesis in humans: A pilot study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21, Article 1553. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21151553
27.
LairdE.RasmussenC. L.KennyR. A.HerringM. P. (2023). Physical activity dose and depression in a cohort of older adults in the Irish longitudinal study on ageing. JAMA Network Open, 6(7), Article e2322489. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.22489
28.
LehmannM. L.HerkenhamM. (2011). Environmental enrichment confers stress resiliency to social defeat through an infralimbic cortex-dependent neuroanatomical pathway. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(16), 6159–6173. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0577-11.2011
29.
MarquesA.IhleA.SouzaA.PeraltaM.de MatosM. G. (2022). Religious-based interventions for depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 309, 289–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.04.087
30.
Medina-MoraM. E.LaraM. A. (2005). Attitudes to women and their mental health in Mexico. International Psychiatry, 2(9), 6–8.
31.
Moreno-JiménezE. P.Jurado-ArjonaJ.ÁvilaJ.Llorens-MartínM. (2019). The social component of environmental enrichment is a pro-neurogenic stimulus in adult c57BL6 female mice. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 7, Article 62.
32.
MorganC.NovakI.DaleR. C.GuzzettaA.BadawiN. (2014) GAME (Goals - Activity - Motor Enrichment): Protocol of a single blind randomised controlled trial of motor training, parent education and environmental enrichment for infants at high risk of cerebral palsy. BMC Neurology, 14, Article 203. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-014-0203-2
33.
NicolasS.VeyssièreJ.GandinC.ZsürgerN.PietriM.HeurteauxC.GlaichenhausN.Petit-PaitelA.ChabryJ. (2015). Neurogenesis-independent antidepressant-like effects of enriched environment is dependent on adiponectin. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 57, 72–83.
34.
NithianantharajahJ.HannanA. J. (2006). Enriched environments, experience-dependent plasticity and disorders of the nervous system. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7(9), 697–709.
35.
Nolen-HoeksemaS.LarsonJ.GraysonC. (1999). Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(5), 1061–1072. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061
36.
OpdebeeckC.QuinnC.NelisS. M.ClareL. (2016). Is cognitive lifestyle associated with depressive thoughts and self-reported depressive symptoms in later life?European Journal of Ageing, 13(1), 63–73.
37.
Palma-LealX.Costa-RodríguezC.Barranco-RuizY.Hernández-JañaS.Rodríguez-RodríguezF. (2022). Fiabilidad del Cuestionario Internacional de Actividad Física (IPAQ)-versión corta y del Cuestionario de Autoevaluación de la Condición Física (IFIS) en estudiantes universitarios chilenos. Journal of Movement & Health, 19(2). https://doi.org/10.5027/jmh-vol19-issue2(2022)art161
38.
ParkH.HwangboY.NamY. (2018). The effect of employment and occupational factors on late-life depression in Korea. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 60(9), e492–e497.
39.
PearceM.GarciaL.AbbasA.StrainT.SchuchF. B.GolubicR.KellyP.KhanS.UtukuriM.LairdY.MokA.SmithA.TainioM.BrageS.WoodcockJ. (2022). Association between physical activity and risk of depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 79(6), 550–559.
40.
PhamT. M.WinbladB.GranholmA. C.MohammedA. H. (2002). Environmental influences on brain neurotrophins in rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 73(1), 167–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0091-3057(02)00787-4
41.
PizzagalliD. A. (2022). Toward a better understanding of the mechanisms and pathophysiology of anhedonia: Are we ready for translation?The American Journal of Psychiatry, 179(7), 458–469.
42.
PlanchezB.SurgetA.BelzungC. (2019). Animal models of major depression: Drawbacks and challenges. Journal of Neural Transmission, 126(11), 1383–1408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-019-02067-y
43.
QueenN. J.HassanQ. N.CaoL. (2020). Improvements to healthspan through environmental enrichment and lifestyle interventions: Where are we now?Frontiers in Neuroscience, 14, Article 605.
44.
Ramírez-RodríguezG. B.Gutiérrez-VeraB.Ortiz-LópezL.Vega-RiveraN. M.JuanD. M.-S.Granados-JuárezA.AquinoD. V. C.Castro-GarcíaM.RamosM. F. (2022). Environmental enrichment: Dissociated effects between physical activity and changing environmental complexity on anxiety and neurogenesis in adult male Balb/C mice. Physiology & Behavior, 254, Article 113878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.113878
45.
Ramírez-RodríguezG. B.Vega-RiveraN. M.Meneses-San JuanD.Ortiz-LópezL.Estrada-CamarenaE. M.Flores-RamosM. (2021). Short daily exposure to environmental enrichment, fluoxetine, or their combination reverses deterioration of the coat and anhedonia behaviors with differential effects on hippocampal neurogenesis in chronically stressed mice. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(20), Article 10976. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222010976
46.
SamsudinN.BaileyR. P.RiesF.HashimS. N. A. B.FernandezJ. A. (2024). Assessing the impact of physical activity on reducing depressive symptoms: A rapid review. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 16(1), Article 107. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-024-00895-5
47.
SchinkaJ. A.McBrideA.VanderploegR. D.TennysonK.BorensteinA. R.MortimerJ. A. (2005). Florida Cognitive Activities Scale: Initial development and validation. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11(1), 108–116. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617705050142
48.
SegoviaG.YagüeA. G.García-VerdugoJ. M.MoraF. (2006). Environmental enrichment promotes neurogenesis and changes the extracellular concentrations of glutamate and GABA in the hippocampus of aged rats. Brain Research Bulletin, 70(1), 8–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.11.005
49.
TakumaK.AgoY.MatsudaT. (2011). Preventive effects of an enriched environment on rodent psychiatric disorder models. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences, 117(2), 71–76.
50.
van den BrinkR. H. S.SchutterN.HanssenD. J. C.ElzingaB. M.Rabeling-KeusI. M.StekM. L.ComijsH. C.PenninxB. W. J. H.Oude VoshaarR. C. (2018) Prognostic significance of social network, social support and loneliness for course of major depressive disorder in adulthood and old age. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 27(3), 266–277.
51.
VeenaJ.SrikumarB. N.RajuT. R.Shankaranarayana RaoB. S. (2009). Exposure to enriched environment restores the survival and differentiation of new born cells in the hippocampus and ameliorates depressive symptoms in chronically stressed rats. Neuroscience Letters, 455(3), 178–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2009.03.066.
52.
Vega-RiveraN. M.Ortiz-LópezL.Gómez-SánchezA.Oikawa-SalaJ.Estrada-CamarenaE. M.Ramírez-RodríguezG. B. (2016). The neurogenic effects of an enriched environment and its protection against the behavioral consequences of chronic mild stress persistent after enrichment cessation in six-month-old female Balb/C mice. Behavioural Brain Research, 301, 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2015.12.035
53.
Vega-RosasA.Flores-RamosM.Ramírez-RodríguezG. B. (2024). Association between the enriched environment level and serum Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) in patients with major depressive disorder. Brain Sciences, 14(11), Article 1137. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14111137
54.
WangC.ZhangQ.YuK.ShenX.WuY.WuJ. (2019). Enriched environment promoted cognitive function via bilateral synaptic remodeling after cerebral ischemia. Frontiers in Neurology, 10, Article 1189. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.01189
55.
XiangM.GuX.ZhangX.MossS.HuangC.NelsonL. P.ZhangT. (2020). Psychosocial mechanism of adolescents’ depression: A dose-response relation with physical activity. Children, 7(4), Article 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/children7040037
56.
Zamorano GonzálezB.Peña CárdenasF.Pinto-CortezC.NarváezY. V.MartínezJ. I. V.RamosL. A. R. (2021). Unemployment and mental health in a community population from a border city in Mexico. Work, 69(3), 957–967.
57.
ZhaoX.Rondón-OrtizA. N.LimaE. P.PuracchioM.RoderickR. C.KentnerA. C. (2020). Therapeutic efficacy of environmental enrichment on behavioral, endocrine, and synaptic alterations in an animal model of maternal immune activation. Brain, Behavior, & Immunity - Health, 3, Article 100043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbih.2020.100043
58.
ZuelkeA. E.LuckT.SchroeterM. L.WitteA. V.HinzA.EngelC.EnzenbachC.ZachariaeS.LoefflerM.ThieryJ.VillringerA.Riedel-HellerS. G. (2018). The association between unemployment and depression-Results from the population-based LIFE-adult-study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 235, 399–406.
