American Heart Association. Guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiac care. JAMA. 1992;268:2171–2183.
2.
CumminsRO, EisenbergMS. Prehospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation: is it effective?JAMA. 1985;253:2408–2412.
3.
LombardiG, GallagherJ, GennisP.Outcome of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in New York City: the Pre-Hospital Arrest Survival Evaluation (PHASE) Study. JAMA. 1994;271:678–683.
4.
EisenbergMS, HorwoodBT, CumminsRO, Reynolds-HaertleR, HearneTC. Cardiac arrest and resuscitation: a tale of 29 cities. Ann Emerg Med. 1990;19:179–186.
5.
BeckerLB, OstranderMP, BarrettJ, KondosGJ. Outcome of CPR in a large metropolitan area: where are the survivors?Ann Emerg Med. 1991;20:355–361.
6.
SchindlerMB, BohnD, CoxPN, McCrindleBW, JarvisA, EdmondsJ, BarkerG.Outcome of out-of-hospital cardiac or respiratory arrest in children. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1473–1479.
7.
BrennerBE, KauffmanJ.Reluctance of internists and medical nurses to perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:1763–1769.
8.
BrennerB, StarkB, KauffmanJ.The reluctance of house staff to perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation in the inpatient setting: what are the considerations?Resuscitation. 1994;28:185–193.
9.
BrennerB, KauffmanJ, SachterJJ. Comparison of the reluctance of house staff of metropolitan and suburban hospitals to perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Resuscitation. 1996;32:5–12.
OrnatoJP, HallaganLF, McMahanSB, PeeplesEH, RostafinskiAG. Attitudes of BCLS instructors about mouth-to-mouth resuscitation during the AIDS epidemic. Ann Emerg Med. 1990;19:151–156.
14.
MelkerRJ, BannerMJ. Ventilation during CPR: two-rescuer standards reappraised. Ann Emerg Med. 1985;14:397–402.
15.
RubenH, KnudsenEJ, CarugtiG.Gastric insufflation in relation to airway pressure. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1961;5:107–114.
16.
RubenR, RubenH.Artificial respiration: flow of water from the lung and the stomach. Lancet. 1962;1:780–781.
17.
RubenH.The immediate treatment of respiratory failure. Br J Anaesth. 1964;36:542–549.
18.
FlescheCW, NoetgesP, SchlackW, ZuckerTP, TarnowJ.Quality of lay public cardiopulmonary resuscitation after standard first aid training courses. Resuscitation. 1994;28:S25. Abstract.
19.
WenzelV, IdrisAH, BannerMJ, FuerstRS, TuckerKJ. The composition of gas given by mouth-to-mouth ventilation during CPR. Chest. 1994;106:1806–1810.
20.
WenzelV, LehmkuhlP, KubilisPS, IdrisAH, PichlmayrI.Resuscitation skills of medical students six months after basic life support training. Resuscitation. 1997. In press.
21.
BartecchiCE. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation: an element of sophistication in the 18th century. Am Heart J. 1980;100:580–581.
22.
DeBardML. The history of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Ann Emerg Med. 1980;9:273–275.
23.
HermreckAS. The history of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Am J Surg. 1988;156:430–436.
24.
GordonA, FainerD, IvyA.Artificial respiration: a new method and a comparative study of different methods in adults. JAMA. 1950;144:1455–1464.
25.
KarpovichPV. Adventures in artificial respiration. New York: Association Press; 1953.
26.
SafarP, EscarragaLA, ChangF.Upper airway obstruction in the unconscious patient. Appl Physiol. 1959;14:760–764.
27.
ElamJO, BrownES, ElderJJD. Artificial respiration by mouth-to-mask method: a study of the respiratory gas exchange of paralyzed patient ventilated by operator's expired air. N Engl J Med. 1954;250:749–754.
28.
GuildnerCW. Resuscitation-opening the airway: a comparative study of techniques for opening the airway obstructed by the tongue. J Am Coll Emerg Phys. 1976;5:588–590.
29.
SafarP.Ventilatory efficacy of mouth to mouth artificial respiration: airway obstruction during manual and mouth to mouth artificial respiration. JAMA. 1958;167:335–341.
30.
SafarP, EscarragaLA, ElamJO. Comparison of mouth-to-mouth and mouth-to-airway methods of artificial respiration with the chest-pressure arm-lift methods. N Engl J Med. 1958;258:671–677.
31.
SafarP, BrownTC, HolteyWJ, WilderRJ. Ventilation and circulation with closed-chest cardiac massage in man. JAMA. 1961;176:574–576.
32.
DillDB. Symposium of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation (expired air inflation). Council on Medical Physics. JAMA. 1958;167:317–319.
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Committee on CPR of the Division of Medical Sciences, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council. JAMA. 1966;198:138–145, 372–379.
35.
HaffisLC, KirimliB, SafarP.Ventilation-cardiac compression rates and ratios in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Anesthesiology. 1967;28:806–813.
36.
CumminsRO, EisenbergMS, HallstromAD, LitwinPE. Survival of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with early initiation of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Am J Emerg Med. 1985;3:114–119.
37.
BossaertL, Van HoeyweghenR, Cerebral Resuscitation Study Group. Evaluation of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) techniques. Resuscitation. 1989;17:S199-S206.
38.
Van HoeyweghenRJ, BossaertLL, MullieA, CalleP, MartensP, BuylaertWA, DeloozH, Belgian Cerebral Resuscitation Study Group. Quality and efficiency of bystander CPR. Resuscitation. 1993;26:47–52.
39.
BossaertL, VanhoeyweghenR, Cerebral Resuscitation Study Group. Bystanders cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 1989;17(suppl):S55–S69.
40.
WeisfeldtML, KerberRE, McGoldrickRP, MossAJ, NicholG, OrnatoJP, PalmerDG, RiegelB, SmithSCJr, American Heart Association. report on the Public Access Defibrillation Conference, December 8-10, 1994. Automatic External Defibrillation Task Force. Circulation. 1995;92:2740–2747.
41.
WeisfeldtML, KerberRE, McGoldrickRP, MossAJ, NicholG, OrnatoJP, PalmerDG, RiegelB, SmithSCJr. Public access defibrillation: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association Task Force on Automatic External Defibrillation. Circulation. 1995;92:2763.
42.
EisenbergMS, BergnerL, HallstromA.Cardiac resuscitation in the community: importance of rapid provision and implications for program planning. JAMA. 1979;241:1905–1907.
43.
LarsenMP, EisenbergMS, CumminsRO, HallstromAP. Predicting survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a graphic model. Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22:1652–1658.
44.
ValenzuelaTD, RoeDJ, KretinS, SpaiteDW, LarsenMP. Estimating effectiveness of cardiac arrest interventions: a logistic regression survival model. Circulation. 1997. In press.
45.
ReddingJS, PearsonJW. Evaluation of drugs for cardiac resuscitation. Anesthesiology. 1963;24:203–207.
46.
PearsonJW, ReddingJS. Influence of peripheral vascular tone on cardiac resuscitation. Anesth Analg. 1965;44:746–752.
47.
RalstonSH, TackerWA, ShowenL, CarterA, BabbsCF. Endotracheal versus intravenous epinephrine during electromechanical dissociation with CPR in dogs. Ann Emerg Med. 1985;14:1044–1048.
48.
MichaelJR, GuerciAD, KoehlerRC, ShiAY, TsitlikJ, ChandraN, NiedermeyerE, RogersMC, TraystmanRJ, WeisfeldtML. Mechanisms by which epinephrine augments cerebral and myocardial perfusion during cardiopulmonary resuscitation in dogs. Circulation. 1984;69:822–835.
49.
SandersAB, EwyGA, TaftTV. Prognostic and therapeutic importance of the aortic diastolic pressure in resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Crit Care Med. 1984;12:871–873.
50.
SandersAB, KernKB, AtlasM, BraggS, EwyGA. Importance of the duration of inadequate coronary perfusion pressure on resuscitation from cardiac arrest. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1985;6:113–118.
51.
SandersAB, KernKB, BraggS, EwyGA. Neurologic benefits from the use of early cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Ann Emerg Med. 1987;16:142–146.
52.
KernKB, EwyGA, VoorheesWD, BabbsCF, TackerWA. Myocardial perfusion pressure: a predictor of 24-hour survival during prolonged cardiac arrest in dogs. Resuscitation. 1988;16:241–250.
53.
BergRA, OttoCW, KernKB, SandersAB, HilwigRW, HansenKK, EwyGA. High-dose epinephrine results in greater early mortality after resuscitation from prolonged cardiac arrest in pigs: a prospective randomized study. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:282–290.
54.
ParadisNA, MartinGB, RiversEP, GoettingMG, AppletonTJ, FeingoldM, NowakRM. Coronary perfusion pressure and return of spontaneous circulation in human cardiopulmonary resuscitation. JAMA. 1990;263:1106–1113.
55.
EisenbergMS, CopassMK, HallstromAP, BlakeB, BergnerL, ShortFA, CobbLA. Treatment of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests with rapid defibrillation by emergency medical technicians. N Engl J Med. 1980;302:1379–1383.
WeaverWD, CopassMK, BufiD, RayR, HallstromAP, CobbLA. Improved neurologic recovery and survival after early defibrillation. Circulation. 1984;69:943–948.
58.
WeaverWD, CobbLA, HallstromAP, FahrenbruchC, CopassMK, RayR.Factors influencing survival after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1986;7:752–757.
59.
CopleyDP, MantleJA, RogersWJJr, RussellROJr, RackleyCE. Improved outcome for prehospital cardiopulmonary collapse with resuscitation by bystanders. Circulation. 1977;56:901–905.
60.
BeckerLB, HanBH, MeyerPM, WrightFA, RhodesKV, SmithDW, BarrettJ, CPR Chicago Project. Racial differences in the incidence of cardiac arrest and subsequent survival. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:600–606.
61.
KyriacouDN, ArcinueEL, PeekC, KrausJF. Effect of immediate resuscitation on children with submersion injury. Pediatrics. 1994;94:137–142.
62.
FuerstR, IdrisA, BannerM, WenzelV, OrbanD.Changes in respiratory system compliance during cardiopulmonary arrest with and without closed chest compressions. Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22:931.
63.
PepePE. Acute respiratory insufficiency. In: Hardwood-NussAL, LindenCH, LutenRC, ShepherdSM, WolfsonAB, eds. The Clinical Practice of Emergency Medicine. Philadelphia, Pa: JB Lippincott Co; 1996:636–640.
64.
PepePE, ZachariahBS, ChandraNC. Invasive airway techniques in resuscitation. Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22(Pt 2):393–403.
65.
PepePE, CopassMK, JoyceTH. Prehospital endotracheal intubation: rationale for training emergency medical personnel. Ann Emerg Med. 1985;14:1085–1092.
66.
JohnsonBA, WeilMH, TangW, NocM, McKeeD, McCandlessD.Mechanism of myocardial hypercarbic acidosis during cardiac arrest. Am J Physiol. 1995;78:1579–1584.
67.
KetteF, WeilMH, GazmuriRJ, BiseraJ, RackowER. Intramyocardial hypercarbic acidosis during cardiac arrest and resuscitation. Crit Care Med. 1993;21:901–906.
68.
TuckerKJ, IdrisAH, WenzelV, OrbanDJ. Changes in arterial and mixed venous blood gases during untreated ventricular fibrillation and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Resuscitation. 1994;28:137–141.
69.
IdrisAH, StaplesED, O'BrienDJ, MelkerRJ, RushWJ, Del DucaKD, FalkJL. Effect of ventilation on acid-base balance and oxygenation in low blood-flow states. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:1827–1834.
70.
ChandraNC, GrubenKG, TsitlikJE, BrowerR, GuerciAD, HalperinHH, WeisfeldtML, PermuttS.Observations of ventilation during resuscitation in a canine model. Circulation. 1994;90:3070–3075.
71.
IdrisAH, BannerMJ, WenzelV, FuerstRS, BeckerLB, MelkerRJ. Ventilation caused by external chest compression is unable to sustain effective gas exchange during CPR: a comparison with mechanical ventilation. Resuscitation. 1994;28:143–150.
72.
IdrisAH, WenzelV, TuckerKJ, OrbanDJ. Chest compression ventilation: a comparison of standard CPR and active-compression/decompression CPR. Acad Emerg Med. 1994;1:A1–7.
73.
IdrisAH. Reassessing the need for ventilation during CPR. Ann Emerg Med. 1996;27:569–575.
74.
NocM, WeilMH, TangW, TurnerT, FukuiM.Mechanical ventilation may not be essential for initial cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Chest. 1995;108:821–827.
75.
BergRA, WilcoxsonD, HilwigRW, KernKB, SandersAB, OttoCW, EklundDK, EwyGA. The need for ventilatory support during bystander CPR. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;26:342–350.
76.
BergRA, KernKB, HilwigRW, BergMD, SandersAB, OttoCW, EwyGA. Assisted ventilation does not improve outcome in a porcine model of single-rescuer bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation. 1997;95:1635–1641.
77.
TangW, WeilMH, SunS, KetteD, KetteF, GazmuriRJ, O'ConnellF, BiseraJ.Cardiopulmonary resuscitation by precordial compression but without mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:1709–1713.
78.
NocM, WeilMH, SunS, TangW, BiseraJ.Spontaneous gasping during cardiopulmonary resuscitation without mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:861–864.
79.
YangL, WeilMH, NocM, TangW, TurnerT, GazmuriRJ. Spontaneous gasping increases the ability to resuscitate during experimental cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:879–883.
80.
MeursingBTJ, ZimmermanANE, Van HeystANP. Experimental evidence in favor of a reversed sequence in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1983;1:610. Abstract.
81.
SimoonsML, KimmanGP, IvensEM, HartmanJA, HartHN. Followup after out of hospital resuscitation. Read before the XII Annual Congress of the European Society of Cardiology; Sept 1990 16-20; Stockholm, Sweden.
IdrisAH, BeckerLB, FuerstRS, WenzelV, RushWJ, MelkerRJ, OrbanDJ. Effect of ventilation on resuscitation in an animal model of cardiac arrest. Circulation. 1994;90:3063–3069.
84.
IdrisAH, WenzelV, BeckerLB, BannerMJ, OrbanDJ. Does hypoxia or hypercarbic acidosis independently affect survival from cardiac arrest?Chest. 1995;108:522–528.
85.
ClarkJJ, LarsenMP, CulleyLL, GravesJR, EisenbergMS. Incidence of agonal respirations in sudden cardiac arrest. Ann Emerg Med. 1992;21:1464–1467.
86.
WeilMH, SunS, BiseraJ, TangW, GazmuriRJ. Challenge of the ABC's of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Chest. 1994;102:1275.
87.
CohenTJ, TuckerKJ, LurieKG, RedbergRF, DuttonJP, DwyerKA, SchwabTM, ChinMC, GelbAM, ScheinmanMM, SchillerNB, CallahamML. Active compression-decompression: a new method of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. JAMA. 1992;267:2916–2923.
88.
IdrisAH, WenzelV, BannerMJ, MelkerRJ. Smaller tidal volumes minimize gastric inflation during CPR with an unprotected airway (abstract). Circulation. 1995;92(suppl 1):759–760.
89.
JohannigmanJA, BransonRD, DavisKJr, HurstJM. Techniques of emergency ventilation: a model to evaluate tidal volume, airway pressure, and gastric insufflation. J Trauma. 1991;31:93–98.
90.
CohenS.Pathogenesis of coffee-induced gastrointestinal symptoms. N Engl J Med. 1980;303:122–124.
91.
FisherRS, MalmudLS, LobisIF, MaierWP. Antireflux surgery for symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux: mechanism of action. Am J Dig Dis. 1978;23:152–160.
92.
BowmanFP, MenagazziJJ, CheckBD, DuckettTM. Lower esophageal sphincter pressure during prolonged cardiac arrest and resuscitation. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;26:216–219.
93.
SellickBA. Cricoid pressure to control regurgitation of stomach contents during induction of anesthesia. Lancet. 1961;2:404–406.
94.
RottenbergEM, DzwonczykR, ReilleyTE, MaloneM.Use of supplemental oxygen during bystander-initiated CPR. Ann Emerg Med. 1994;23:1027–1031.
95.
IdrisAH, WenzelV, KubilisPS, RushWJ, BandRA, WilliamsJLJr. Mouth to mouth ventilation decreases the rate of successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation in an animal model of cardiac arrest. Chest. 1997. In press.
96.
WalleyKR, FordLE, WoodLD. Effects of hypoxia and hypercapnia on the force-velocity relation of rabbit myocardium. Circ Res. 1991;69:1616–1625.
97.
HongoK, WhiteE, OrchardCH. The effect of mechanical loading on the response of rat ventricular myocytes to acidosis. Exp Physiol. 1995;80:701–712.
98.
HalperinHR, TsitlikJE, GuerciAD, MellitsED, LevinHR, ShiAY, ChandraN, WeisfeldtML. Determinants of blood flow to vital organs during cardiopulmonary resuscitation in dogs. Circulation. 1986;73:539–550.
99.
FeneleyMP, MaierGW, KernKB, GaynorJW, GallSAJr, SandersAB, RaesslerK, MuhlbaierLH, RankinJS, EwyGA. Influence of compression rate on initial success of resuscitation and 24-hour survival after prolonged manual cardiopulmonary resuscitation in dogs. Circulation. 1988;77:240–250.
100.
KernKB, SandersAB, RaifeJ, MilanderMM, OttoCW, EwyGA. A study of chest compression rates during CPR in humans: the importance of rate directed chest compressions. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:145–149.
101.
ThomasAN, WeberEC. A new method of two-resuscitator CPR. Resuscitation. 1993;26:173–176.
102.
HightowerD, ThomasSH, StoneCK, DunnK, MarchJA. Decay in quality of closed-chest compressions over time. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;26:300–303.
103.
MilanderMM, HiscokPS, SandersAB, KernKB, BergRA, EwyGA. Chest compression and ventilation rates during cardiopulmonary resuscitation: the effects of audible tone guidance. Acad Emerg Med. 1995;2:708–713.
104.
FiguraN.Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and Helibacter pylori infection. Lancet. 1996;347:1342. Letter.
105.
HeilmanKM, MuscheheimC.Primary cutaneous tuberculosis resulting from mouth-to-mouth respiration. N Engl J Med. 1965;273:1035–1036.
106.
FeldmanHA. Some recollections of the meningococcal disease: the first Harry F. Dowling lecture. JAMA. 1972;220:1107–1112.
ToddMA, BellJS. Shigellosis from cardiopulmonary resuscitation. JAMA. 1980;243:331. Letter.
111.
ValenzuelaTD, HootenTM, KaplanEL, SchlievertP.Transmission of ‘toxic strep’ syndrome from an infected child to a firefighter during CPR. Ann Emerg Med. 1991;20:90–92.
112.
AhmadF, SenadhiraDC, ChartersJ, AcquillaS.Transmission of salmonella via mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Lancet. 1990;335:787–788. Letter.
113.
LawrencePJ, SivaneswaranN.Ventilation during cardiopulmonary resuscitation: which method?Med J Aust. 1985;143:443–446.
114.
BraslowA, BrennanRT, NewmanMM, BircherNG, BatchellerAM, KayeW.CPR training without an instructor: development and evaluation of a video self-instructional system for effective performance of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Resuscitation. 1997;34:207–220.
115.
HickeyRW, CohenDM, StrausbaughS, DietrichAM. Pediatric patients requiring CPR in the prehospital setting. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;25:495–501.
116.
MogayzelC, QuanL, GravesJR, TiedemanD, FahrenbruchC, HerndonP.Out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation in children and adolescents: causes and outcomes. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;25:484–491.
117.
WhitelawCC, GoldsmithLJ. Comparison of two techniques for determining the presence of a pulse in an infant. Acad Emerg Med. 1997;4:153–154. Letter.
118.
ParadisNA, MartinGB, GoettingMG, RiversEP, FeingoldM, NowakRM. Aortic pressure during human cardiac arrest: identification of human pseudo-electromechanical dissociation. Chest. 1992;101:123–128.
119.
LeeCS, BullockLJ. Determining the pulse for infant CPR: time for a change?Mil Med. 1991;156:190–193.
120.
CavallaroDL, MelkerRJ. Comparison of two techniques for detecting cardiac activity in infants. Crit Care Med. 1983;11:189–190.
121.
HazinskiMF. Is pediatric resuscitation unique? Relative merits of early CPR and ventilation versus early defibrillation for young victims of prehospital cardiac arrest. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;25:540–543.
