This study is the first to apply the econometric tools developed in the study of race and gender discrimination to the newer question of sexual orientation discrimination. Analyzing pooled 1989–91 data from a national random sample, the General Social Survey, the author finds that gay and bisexual male workers earned from 11% to 27% less than heterosexual male workers with the same experience, education, occupation, marital status, and region of residence. There is also evidence that lesbian and bisexual women earned less than heterosexual women, but this result is not consistently statistically significant across all variable definitions and specifications.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AlonsoAna Maria, and KoreckMaria Teresa. 1989. “Silences: ‘Hispanics,’ AIDS, and Sexual Practices.”Differences, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Winter), pp. 101–24.
2.
BadgettM. V. Lee. 1990. “Racial Differences in Unemployment Rates and Employment Opportunities.” Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
3.
BadgettLeeDonnellyColleen, and KibbeJennifer. 1992. “Pervasive Patterns of Discrimination Against Lesbians and Gay Men: Evidence from Surveys Across the United States.”National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute.
4.
BeckerGary S.1971. The Economics of Discrimination, 2nd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
5.
BloomDavid E., and GliedSherry. 1989. “The Evolution of AIDS Economic Research.”Health Policy, Vol. 11, No. 2 (April), pp. 187–96.
6.
BloomDavid E., and KillingsworthMark R.. 1982. “Pay Discrimination Research and Litigation: The Use of Regression.”Industrial Relations, Vol. 21, No. 3 (Fall), pp. 318–39.
7.
BowmanCraig A., and CornishBlake M.. 1992. “A More Perfect Union: A Legal and Social Analysis of Domestic Partnership Ordinances.”Columbia Law Review, Vol. 92, No. 5 (June), pp. 1164–1211.
8.
BrauseJay. 1989. “Closed Doors: Sexual Orientation Bias in the Anchorage Housing and Employment Markets.” In Identity Reports: Sexual Orientation Bias in Alaska. Anchorage, Alaska: Identity Inc.
9.
Business Week.1991. “The Right to Privacy: A $5.3 Million Lesson for Shell?” August 26.
10.
CarrollVincent. 1992. “Coloradans on the Gay Amendment.”Wall Street Journal, December 15.
11.
Daily Labor Report. 1994. “Clinton Administration Backs Bill to Ban Job Bias Against Gays.” August 1, p. D16.
12.
DavisJames Allan, and SmithTom W.. 1991. General Social Surveys 1972–1991. Machine-readable data file and codebook. Principal Investigator, James A. Davis; Director and Co-Principal Investigator, Tom W. Smith. National Opinion Research Center, Chicago (producer); Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, University of Connecticut, Storrs (distributor).
13.
Economic Report of the President. 1990, 1991. Washington, D.C.: GPO.
14.
EscoffierJeffrey. 1975. “Stigmas, Work Environment, and Economic Discrimination Against Homosexuals.”Homosexual Counseling Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1 (January), pp. 8–17.
15.
GarnetsLinda, and KimmelDouglas. 1991. “Lesbian and Gay Male Dimensions in the Psychological Study of Human Diversity.” In GoodchildsJacqueline D., ed., Psychological Perspectives on Human Diversity in America. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, pp. 137–92.
16.
The Gay/Lesbian/Bisexual Corporate Letter. 1992. “Building Community at PG&E.”Vol. 1, No. 2 (November/December), pp. 3–6.
17.
GonsiorekJohn C.1988. “Mental Health Issues of Gay and Lesbian Adolescents.”Journal of Adolescent Health Care, Vol. 9. Reprinted in GarnetsLinda D. and KimmelDouglas C., eds., Psychological Perspectives on Lesbian and Gay Male Experiences. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, pp. 469–85.
18.
GonsiorekJohn C., and WeinrichJames D.. 1991. “The Definition and Scope of Sexual Orientation.” In GonsiorekJohn C. and WeinrichJames D., eds., Homosexuality: Research Implications for Public Policy. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, pp. 1–12.
19.
GravoisMichael. 1991. President, Rivendell Marketing Company. Telephone conversation with author, November 7.
20.
Harvard Law Review editors. 1991. “Sexual Orientation and the Law.”Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
21.
JuhnChinhuiMurphyKevin M., and PierceBrooks. 1991. “Accounting for the Slowdown in Black-White Wage Convergence.” In KostersMarvin H., ed., Workers and Their Wages: Changing Patterns in the United States. Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute Press, pp. 107–43.
22.
LeverJanetKanouseDavid E.RogersWilliam H.CarsonSally, and HertzRosanna. 1992. “Behavior Patterns and Sexual Identity of Bisexual Males.”Journal of Sex Research, Vol. 29, No. 2 (May), pp. 141–67.
23.
MohrRichard. 1988. Gays/Justice: A Study of Ethics, Society, and Law. New York: Columbia University Press.
24.
RigdonJoan E.1991. “Overcoming a Deep-Rooted Reluctance, More Firms Advertise to Gay Community.”Wall Street Journal, July 18, p. B1.
25.
RubensteinWilliam B. (ed.). 1993. Lesbians, Gay Men, and the Law. New York: New Press.
26.
SchneiderBeth E.1986. “Coming Out at Work: Bridging the Private/Public Gap.”Work and Occupations, Vol. 13, No. 4 (November), pp. 463–87.
27.
SmithJames P., and WelchFinis R.. 1989. “Black Economic Progress After Myrdal.”Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 27, No. 2 (June), pp. 519–64.
28.
TeichnerSteve. 1989. “Results of Poll.”San Francisco Examiner, June 6, p. A–19.
29.
TurnerMargery AustinFixMichael, and StruykRaymond J.. 1991. Opportunities Denied, Opportunities Diminished: Racial Discrimination in Hiring. Urban Institute Report 91–9. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press.
30.
WoodsJames D.1993. The Corporate Closet: The Professional Lives of Gay Men in America. New York: Free Press.
31.
“Work and Career: Survey Results.”1988. Out/Look, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Fall), p. 94.
