Abstract
The foundational essence of Indian social thought lies in its ability to distinguish between ‘what should’ and ‘what should not be done’—not as a doctrine, but as a philosophy. The plea is to be human. The notion of Dharma and Nyaya is central to Indic social thought. There is an innate, organic and default embeddedness between the Swadharma, and the Rajya Dharma. In this regard, the emphasis is laid on Dharma. Therefore, the conception of Indic civilisation becomes important to understand when Vyavahara occupies centrality in thought, action and institutions. In our thought, an organic synergy exists between social thought and political thought.
The book Social Thought in Indic Civilization edited by Himanshu Roy (henceforth Roy) presents a panoramic view of prevalent social and economic ideas in precolonial Indian society. The book contains eleven chapters on concepts like Dharma, Stritva, Shaktitva, Shastrarth, Indian Knowledge tradition, women saints, musical thought, medicinal concepts and Indic Culture. The book weaves together an interdisciplinary perspective around the social thought of precolonial Indic civilisation (Roy, 2022, p. x). The aim is to bring back the ‘Indian-ness’ in curriculum and public discourse by revisiting, researching and re-inquiring (Roy, 2022, p. x), the tradition and the civilisation. India was historically referred to as the ‘land of wisdom’ and ‘land of desire’. Roy outlines the book’s scope by traversing a broad terrain of Indic thought from the philosophical richness of the Rigveda to the diversity advocated by Dara Shikoh. This thought encompasses dharma and Shakti. The book employs an interdisciplinary approach from sociology, history and political theory. It elucidates various dimensions of social thought that define the pluralistic ethos of the Indic society (Roy, 2022, p. 18).
From a Knowledge Society to Colonisation of Mind
The book relooks at the ‘continuity in the social thought’ (Roy, 2022, p. x) despite the ‘civilisational ruptures’ by invasions and colonialism. The degree and extent of civilisational continuity depicted, what Roy argued as a ‘combination of the political and the social, with the dynamics of the economy, kept the Indic civilisation vibrant for centuries until the British colonial rule altered it forever’ (Roy, 2022, p. x). The book highlights the dual aspects of the social and economic harm done to the fabric of Indic civilisation: ‘society was classified into tribes, caste, race, linguistic and religious communities and then was labelled as thugs, martial and criminal to suit the administrative needs’ (Roy, 2022, p. 17).
Roy argues that the concept of Ram Rajya highlights the importance of better governance and the centrality of Nyaya and Vyavahara that pave the way for individual opportunity and social mobility. The universal education system was designed to be simple and systematic, imparting knowledge about language, mathematics, and epics. Education had a social dimension. Roy claims that education was not funded by the state, but ‘…was available to everyone irrespective of caste and gender; the students attended their schools irrespective of their social and economic status’ (Roy, 2022, p. 2). All these features of a social system prevailing in pre-invasive and pre-colonial India equipped with civic freedom and pluralistic aspects hint towards a ‘Knowledge Society’ (Roy, 2022, p. 2). The book incorporates a plethora of examples by various travellers that support this claim. Roy argues that ‘women were equal partners in the workforce…’ (Roy, 2022, p. 5), however, highlights that the ‘hierarchy of skilled labour (castes) was more rigid in the agricultural economy in comparison to coastal areas; but it was not frozen’ (Roy, 2022, p. 5). This aspect of diversity was epitomised by the ‘absence of any overarching, paternal god that swept aside all others’ (Roy, 2022, p. 4). However, the diversity of society gradually diminished with the advent of political Islam and imposition of monotheistic beliefs. Adding insult to injury, the dark shadows of political Islam in medieval India not merely wrecked the ‘demographic, political and cultural’ landscape but also ‘changed India substantively over thousand years’ (Roy, 2022, p. 11).
After wrecking the social fabric, the arrival of the East India Company and colonialism annihilated the Indian economy. The British imperialism ‘drained the Indian resources and choked its economy leading to the emergence of social morbidities…’ (Roy, 2022, p. 4). Moreover, the political Islam and then the Britishers imposed their languages like Persian-Arabic and English, respectively. Roy pensively observes that ‘the worst part of this conversion was that they tried to create an Islamic world in India—from changing their Indic names to Persian/Arabic names to changing their gods. Within a short span, the converts became Persian and Arabs and imitated to be orthodox….? It generated social rupture and tension’ (Roy, 2022, p. 15).
This systematic destruction led to the ‘colonisation of mind’ (Roy, 2022, p. 17) as the techniques of control, subjugation and disciplining. The purpose was not merely to ‘colonize the resources’ (Roy, 2022, p. 17) but to damage the swaraj in ideas. K. C. Bhattacharya famously talked about the indispensability of ‘swaraj in ideas’ as an essential feature for fighting colonialism. Coloniser’s grand project of civilising mission and education became the ideological apparatus for the subjugation of the mind.
Thematic Explorations
The first chapter titled as ‘Dharma in Indic Tradition’ by Ruchi Tyagi delves into the substantive aspects of Dharma and its significance for social thought. Dharma is a ‘way of life rather than for theology and religious institutions (Roy, 2022, p. 21). It is associated with Niti, achar, swadharma, purushartha and sadachara. Moreover, the concept of Rajadharma blends duty, obligation, authority and virtue. The second chapter ‘Stritva in Rigveda’ by Kaustubh Gaurh and Abhishek Parashar emphasises the women’s role in the Vedic tradition (Roy, 2022, p. 47). Gaurh and Parashar trace women’s history in the Rigvedic tradition stating that the language imbibes a strong sense of gender. Most significantly, they studied the ‘position of women in ancient times by evaluating the feminine aspects such as gendered language, symbolisms…’ (Roy, 2022, p. 47). Institutions like Vidatha, Sabha and Samiti in the Vedic times depicted women’s participation as well. The third chapter ‘Music and Musical Thought in the Ramayana and the Mahabharta’ by Kaustubh Gaurh brings focus on the varied conceptions of music composed and practised in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. This chapter explicitly mentions that despite the limitations of having a precise knowledge of music practised in those times, it is plausible to make sense of ‘what constituted music in these texts for the people from early India’ (Roy, 2022, p. 71). Moreover, Gaurh emphasise that the rhythm in chanting of Vedic mantras blended with sound signified towards the germination of musical ideas (Roy, 2022, p. 74). Even the use of various tools during the war on the battlefields connotes the ‘musical dimensions’ such as the use of blows and beats of the conches and drums (Roy, 2022, p. 78).
Chapter 4, ‘Knowledge Traditions in Ancient India’ by Shri Prakash Singh, is conceptually sharp and precise in highlighting the social and cultural treasures of India. There is considerable evidence that projects India as a cultural, spiritual, artistic, architectural and intellectual fulcrum that influenced the life worlds of entire Asia and the Himalayan Range as well. Singh attempts to ‘map the history of the knowledge tradition and subsequently investigates the deep roots of distortion, which progressively diluted the real meaning and understanding, and thereby caused irreparable damage to the rich Indian knowledge tradition’ (Roy, 2022, p. 92). Singh argues that the Indian Knowledge system has witnessed deterioration ‘because of intermittent political upheavals leading to the systematic destruction of the coveted indigenous traditions and the institutions that supported them’ (Roy, 2022, p. 91). Apart from this, Singh delves into various other aspects of knowledge tradition, such as 18 Vidyas and 64 kalas along with the threefold—distinction of Jnana (Knowledge) (Roy, 2022, p. 97). Singh postulates the methodology of Prakrt and Samvad or dialogue as a Paddhati (methodology) that emanates from a priori of ‘fundamental consensus.’ This Sastra-paddhati, according to Singh, paves the way ahead to undo the historical distortions done to the Indian Knowledge tradition in the wake of political Islam and British colonialism.
Chapter 5, ‘Violence and Non-Violence in Indian Religious Traditions’ by Dinesh Kumar Singh, explores an often-discussed theme of violence and non-violence in pre-colonial India. Singh delves into the idea and praxis of violence and non-violence as illustrated not only in the Hindu religious texts but also in the Buddhist and Jain texts. The mention of ahimsa can be traced back to the Dharmashastras. A critique of violence eventually shaped various Indian religious traditions. Singh talks about the integral relationship between the Atman and the Ahimsa. Jains among these, strongly argued for ahimsa as an ethical principle—a ‘religion of non-violence’ (Roy, 2022, p. 122), whereas texts like the Arthashastra emphasise the worldly and pragmatic approach to violence.
Chapter 6, ‘Medicinal Concepts and Institutions in Pre-Colonial India’ by Shankar Kumar, raised pertinent questions revolving around the Indic medicinal tradition that has an inherent connection with the ancients. Despite losing the prestige, privilege and mainstream status under the Western and colonial influence of allopathic medicine, Ayurveda acquired an alternative position. Arguably, Ayurveda is based on the relationship between ‘humours (dosha), body tissues (dhatu) and waste products (mala); the doctrine of three humours, namely wind (vaata), choler (pitta) and phlegm (kapha/salesman)’ (Roy, 2022, p. 145). The politics of knowledge in the colonial era negatively affected the growth of Ayurveda. However, this crisis spiralled as the proponents of Ayurveda began to imitate the idioms and techniques of allopathic medicine.
Chapter 7, ‘Concept of Shaktitva and Women Saints in Medieval Maharashtra’ by Sonali Chitalkar, highlights and brings back the focus on the long-obscured indigenous understanding of the concept of Prakriti (Roy, 2022, p. 159). This epistemic notion of gender as explicated in Indic thought presents a scenario of empowered women. Unlike the colonial framework, Chitalkar carefully navigates to explain gender and freedom through the lived experience of Sikata, Apala, Nivavari, Visvavara, Angirasi Sarasvati, Yami Vaivasvati, Indrani, Sarama, Juhu, Mirabai, Lalleshwari and other women saints who contested the prevalence of ‘patriarchy’. The distinctive characteristic of gender in the Sanatan Dharma is not anchored on the dichotomy between masculine and feminine identities and roles but premised on social cooperation and a principle of spiritual unity (Roy, 2022, p. 160). Gender is about a linkage between ‘Prakriti’ and ‘Purusha’, ‘Maya’ and ‘Brahmana’. The notion of Shakti, not bounded by rationality (Roy, 2022, p. 161), is employed to understand gender.
Chapter 8, ‘Knowledge Traditions and Institutions in Precolonial India’ by Niraj Kumar Jha, specifically puts the spotlight on the prevalence of education, caste and gender composition before the Britishers arrived in India. Unlike the prevailing and commonsensical notion, Jha proclaimed that India was ‘a leading country in the field of education and dissemination of knowledge’ (Roy, 2022, p. 182) which was also inclusive. Illustrating the scheme of education, Jha writes that ‘after acquiring the knowledge of grammar and composition in their primary education, the students moved to the secondary education, which comprised the compulsory standardised five subjects or Vidyas (Roy, 2022, p. 221). However, with the advent of colonisers, Indian education was systematically destroyed to legitimise the Western education (Roy, 2022, p. 226) and suppress the Indian-ness, a premise for the internalisation of oppression.
Chapter 9, ‘Methodology of Shastrarth’ by Siddheshwar Shukla, has analysed the Shastrarth as a qualitative method practised in Indian tradition. The purpose is to relook at one of the significant deliberative processes seeking active participation. Jha states that Shastrarth captures various aspects like exploring the unknown, affirming knowledge, addressing doubts, cleansing knowledge from impurities, ascertaining truth, knowledge exchange, peer review, understanding subjects, questioning, dialogue, communication, disseminating knowledge and critical inquiry (Roy, 2022, pp. 241–242).
Chapter 10, ‘Indic in Southeast Asian Culture’ by Ritika Joshi, is indeed an exciting chapter. Joshi extrapolates the significance and relevance of Indic culture beyond the geographical boundaries of South and Southeast Asia. However, it is established beyond doubt that Indic culture ranging from the Ramayana to Buddhism has left deep imprints in the adjoining Asian territories, such as Java, Bali, and Sumatra. Joshi goes beyond merely highlighting the cultural influences but emphasises artistic reinterpretations. This cultural prevalence paved the way for commercial and trade exchanges (Roy, 2022, p. 266).
The last chapter ‘Colonial Institutions and Oriental Knowledge Formation’ by Santoshi Kumari critically looks into the imperial objectives of history writing, the role of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Archaeological Survey of India in creating the oriental aspects of Indic civilisation. Kumari observes that in this formulation ‘the nucleus of the narratives in the colonial and the postcolonial phases remained almost static, though they changed their axes. A case in point can be the historical writings where religion was a variable for the classification (Roy, 2022, p. 282). Echoing several previous contributors to this volume, Kumari also reverberates that colonial ‘moulds persist in the academic discourses, and the real challenge is to break the mould, choose new sources and compare with the evidence recorded in the narratives of these knowledge institutions and rewrite the history of India’ (Roy, 2022, p. 307).
Social Thought and Dharma
The book succeeds in presenting an overall picture of prevailing social thought in Indic civilisation. What is unique about this volume is that all the chapters, despite exploring varied issues and concepts are directed towards coming up with certain robust suggestions and solutions to undo the historical damages as inflicted on the civilisational values. The problem as summed up by Himanshu Roy lies in the fact that the ‘land of desire’ and ‘treasure of wisdom’ were branded negatively as an ‘unchanging’ civilisation; its history became ‘fables’ and its most knowledgeable section, the Brahmans, became ‘immoral’, murderers, cheats and robbers; Hindus, the residents of Hindustan, were called ‘cunning’. Hegel stated that ‘Hindus have no history’ and that ‘they are incapable of writing history’ or India had lost conscience in respect to truth” (Roy, 2022, p. 309). Once colonisers and Europeans succeeded in portraying India as a land of no history, culture or even civilisation by ‘skilful interpretation of selective archival documents’ (Roy, 2022, p. 310), they harped on to loot, plunder and even demolish its educational scheme.
There is a long lineage of Rta in the Vedic age. The Dharma derives some meaning from Rta, but the former is much more comprehensive than the latter due to its later genesis. Rta also emphasises certain ‘physical governing and regulating aspects of the cosmic order’. It certainly talks about truth and moral order, however, Dharma configures a framework of the social system as a whole applicable not only to the king but also to the people. In this sense, Dharma is a sacred law for Kautilya, but also a duty for Manu and the Mahabharata. Dharma connotes virtue. To elucidate further, Dharma is categorised as Saddharma (ordinary equity and morality); Asadharana Dharma; Varnasrama Dharma; Guna Dharma and Naimittika Dharma. The human nature in Indic social thought connotes a deeper and thick sense embodying Guna and vikara, with the potential to always transform and evolve—a positive aspect of humans situated in a socially embedded Rajya.