This paper proposes a metatheory of work motivation incorporating theories of self-concept that have been proposed in the sociological and psychological literatures. Traditional theories of work motivation are reviewed, and the selfconcept-based sources of motivation are presented. How the self-concept influences behavior in organizations is explained and used to develop a metatheory of motivational sources. Both research and managerial implications of the model are presented.
AJZEN, I., & FISHBEIN, M.Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980.
2.
ARVEY, R. D., BOUCHARD, T. J., Jr., SEGAL, N. L., & ABRAHAM, L. M.Job satisfaction: Environmental and genetic components. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1989, 74, 187-192.
3.
ASHFORD, B. E., & MAEL, F.Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 1989, 14, 20-39.
4.
ATKINSON, J. W., & BIRCH, D.The dynamics of action. New York: Wiley, 1970.
5.
BANDURA, A.Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 1982, 37, 122-147.
6.
BANDURA, A.Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986.
7.
BANDURA, A.Social cognitive theory of self regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1991, 50, 248-287.
8.
BARNARD, C.The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1938.
9.
BEACH, L. R., & MITCHELL, T. R.Image theory: A behavioral theory of decision making in organizations. In B. Staw and L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behaviorJAI Press, Greenwich, CT1990.
10.
BECKER, T. E.Foci and bases of commitment: Are they distinctions worth making?Academy of Management Journal, 1992, 35232-244.
11.
BRIEF, A. P., & ALDAG, R. J.The self in organizations: A conceptual review. Academy of Management Review, 1981, 6, 75-88.
12.
CAMPBELL, T. D., & FAIREY, P. J.Effects of self-esteem, hypothetical explanations, and verbalization of expectancies on future performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1985, 48, 1097-1111.
13.
CANTOR, N., & KIHLSTROM, J. F.Social intelligence: The cognitive basis of personality. Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 1985, 6, 15-33.
14.
CANTOR, N., & KIHLSTROM, J.F Personality and social intelligence. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1987.
15.
CATTELL, R. B.The scientific analysis of personality. Baltimore, MD: Penguin, 1965.
16.
DECHARMS, R.Personal causation: The internal affective determinants of behaviorNew York: Academic Press, 1968.
17.
DAVIS-BLAKE, A., & PFEFFER, J.Just a mirage: The search for dispositional effects in organizational research. Academy of Management Review, 1989, 14, 385-400.
18.
DECI, E. L.Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum, 1975.
19.
ETZIONI, A.Comparative analysis of complex organizations (enlarged ed.). New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1975.
20.
FESTINGER, L.A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957.
21.
FOOTE, N. N.Identification as the basis for a theory of motivation. American Sociological Review, 1951, 16, 14-21.
GERGEN, K. J.Theory of the self: Impasse and evaluation. In L. Kerkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experiential social psychology. Orlando: Academic Press, 1984, pp. 49-115.
24.
GERHARDT B.How important are dispositional factors as determinants of job satisfaction? Implications for job design and other personnel programs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1987, 72, 366-373.
25.
GOLDBERG, L. R.An alternative description of personality: The big-five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1990, 59, 1216-1229.
26.
GOTTFREDSON, L. S.Circumscription and compromise: A developmental theory of occupational aspirations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1981, 28, 545-579.
27.
GREENWALD, A. G., & PRATKANIS, A. R.The self. In R. S. Wyer and T S. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition. Hillsdale, NH: Earlbaum, 1984.
28.
HACKMAN, J. R., & OLDHAM, G. R.Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1976, 16, 250-279.
29.
HARVEY, O. J., KELLEY, H. H., & SHAPIRO, M. M.Reactions to unfavorable evaluations of the self made by other persons. Journal of Personality, 1957, 25, 393-411.
30.
HIGGINS, E. T., KLEIN, R. L., & STRAUMAN, T. J.Self discrepancies: Distinguishing among self-states, self-state conflicts, and emotional vulnerabilities. In K. Yardley and T Hones (Eds.), Self and identity: Psychosocial contributions. New York: Wiley, 1987, pp. 173-186.
31.
HOUSE, R. J., SHANE, S. A., & HEROLD, D. M.Rumors of the death of dispositional research are vastly exaggerated. Academy of Management Review, 1996, 21, 203-224.
32.
JONES, E. E.Interpersonal perception. New York: W H. Freeman.
33.
JONES, E. E., & GERARD, H. B.Foundations of social psychology. New York: Wiley, 1967/1990.
34.
JONES, E. E., & NISBITT, R. E.The actor and the observer, divergent perceptions of the causes of behaviorMorristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1971.
35.
KANFER, R.Motivation and individual differences in learning: An integration of developmental, differential, and cognitive perspectives. Learning and Individual Differences, 1990, 2, 219-237.
36.
KATZ, D., & KAHN, R. L.The social psychology of organizations (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley, 1978.
37.
KELLY, H. H.Attribution in social interaction. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1971.
38.
KELMAN, H.The induction of action and attitude change. In G. Nielson (Ed.), Proceedings of the XIV Intemational Congress of Applied Psychology, 1958, pp. 81-110.
39.
KIHLSTROM, J. E., & CANTOR, N.Mental representations of the self. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1984, 17, 1-47.
40.
KIHLSTROM, J. F., ALBRIGHT, J. S., KLEIN, S. B., CANTOR, N., CHEW, B.R., & NIEDENTHAL, P. M.Information processing and the study of the self. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1988, 21, 145-180.
41.
KLEIN, H. J.An integrated control theory model of work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 1989, 14, 150-172.
42.
KORMAN, A. K.Toward a hypothesis of work behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1970, 5631-41.
43.
LANDY, F. J., & BECKER, L. J.Motivation theory reconsidered. Research in Organizational Behavior, 1987, 9, 1-38.
44.
LOCKE, E. A., & HENNE, D.Work motivation theories. In C. L. Cooper and I. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology. Chichester, England: Wiley, 1986, pp. 1-35.
45.
MARCH, J., & SIMON, H.Organizations. New York: Wiley, 1958.
46.
MARKUS, H., & WURF, E.The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 1987, 38299-337.
47.
MARSH, H. W., & HATTIE, J.Theoretical perspectives on the structure of self-concept. In B. A. Bracken (Ed.), Handbook of self-concept: Developmental, social, and clinical considerations. New York: Wiley, 1996.
48.
McCLELLAND, D. C.The achieving society. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1961.
49.
MISCHEL, W.Personality and assessment. New York: Wiley, 1968.
50.
MITCHELL, T. R., & JAMES, L. R.Conclusions and future directions. Academy of Management Review, 1989, 14, 401-407.
51.
O'REILLY, C., III, & CHATMAN, J.Organizational commitment and psychological attachment: The effects of compliance, identification, and internalization of prosocial behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1986, 71, 492-499.
52.
PERVIN, L. A.Personality: Theory, assessment & research. New York: Wiley, 1975.
53.
PERVIN, L. A.Persons, situations, interactions: The history of a controversy and a discussion of theoretical models. Academy of Management Review, 1989, 14, 350-360.
54.
REISMAN, D.The lonely crowd. New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1961.
55.
ROBERTS, B. W., & DONAHUE, E. M.One personality, multiple selves: Integrating personality and social roles. Journal of Personality, 1994, 62, 199-218.
56.
ROGERS, C. R.A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships as developed in the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959, pp. 184-256.
57.
ROSENTHAL, R., & ROSNOW, R. L.Essentials of behavioral research. Methods and data analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.
58.
RYNES, S., & LAWLER, J.A policy-capturing investigation of the role of expectancies in decisions to pursue job alternatives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1983, 68, 620-631.
59.
SCHLENKER, B. R.Impression management: The self-concept, social identity, and interpersonal relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1980.
60.
SCHLENKER, B. R.Identities, identification, and relationships. In V Derlega (Ed.), Communication, intimacy, and close relationships. New York: Academic Press, 1985.
61.
SCHLENKER, B. R.Identity and self-identification. In B. R. Schlenker (Ed.), The self and social life. New York: McGraw Hill, 1985, pp. 15-99.
62.
SCHWARTZ, S. H., & BILSKY, W.Toward a theory of the universal content and structure of values: Extensions and cross-cultural replications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1990, 58, 878-891.
63.
SHAMIR, B.Calculations, values and identities: The sources of collective work motivation. Human Relations, 1990, 43, 313-332.
64.
SHAMIR, B.Meaning, self and motivation in organizations. Organizational Studies, 1991, 12, 405-424.
65.
SIMS, H. P, Jr., & LORENZI, P.The new leadership paradigm: Social learning and cognition in organizations. Newbury Park: Sage, 1992.
66.
SNYDER, R. A., & WILLIAMS, R. R.Self theory: An integrative theory of work motivation. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 1982, 55, 257-267.
67.
SOARES, A. T., & SOARES, L. M.Components of Students' Self-Related Cognitions. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, Montreal. 1983 (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 228 317).
68.
STAW, B., & ROSS, J.Stability in the midst of change: A dispositional approach to job attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1985, 70, 469-480.
69.
STEERS, R. M., & PORTER, L. W.Motivation and work behaviorNew York: McGraw Hill, 1991.
70.
STRYKER, S.Symbolic interactionism: A social structural version. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings, 1980.
71.
STRYKER, S.Identity theory: Developments and extensions. In K. Yardley and T Hones (Eds.), Self and identity. New York: Wiley, 1986.
72.
STRYKER, S., & SERPE, R.Commitment, identity salience, and role behavior: Theory and research example. In W Ickes and E. Knowles (Eds.), Personality, roles and social behavior: New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982, pp. 119-218.
73.
STRYKER, S., & STATHAM, A.Symbolic interaction and role theory. In G. Lindsey and E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology. New York: Random House, 1985, pp. 311-378.
74.
SULLIVAN, J. J.Self theories and employee motivation. Journal of Management, 1989, 15, 345-363.
75.
TAJFEL, H., & TURNER, J. C.The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel and W G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1985, pp. 7-24.
76.
TOLMAN, E. C.Identification and the post-war world. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1943, 38, 141-148.
