Very few models have been developed from research on language in organizations, and those that exist are usually very general. In addition, the assumptions on which they are based are not always explicit, which means that the limits of the models themselves cannot be seen. After describing the characteristics of research that could be done on language from an objectivist and a subjectivist stance, and specifying the limits of these two fundamental views, this paper proposes an explicit model for understanding language based on a symbolic interactionist stance, with emphasis on ascribing meaning and understanding language in the context of the interactive situation in which it occurs. The interactive situation comprises three fundamental components: the environmental, cognitive, and emotional contexts. In the model, the tongue and psycholinguistic schemata of the individuals concerned inevitably have a restrictive effect on the language used, and the language context may help make the speaker's remarks meaningful. The assumptions underlying the choice of a symbolic interactionist stance are described, and the paper ends with some suggested avenues for research revealing new topics or new ways of studying old topics.
AKTOUF, O.La parole dans la vie de l'entreprise: Faits et mefaits. Gestion. Revue internationale de gestion, 1986, 11(4), 31-37.
2.
ANDLER, D.Calcul et representation: Les sources. In D. Andler (Ed.), Introduction atix sciences cognitives. Collection "Folio/Essais." Paris: Gallimard, 1992, pp. 9-46.
3.
ARGYRIS, C.Productive and counterproductive reasoning process. In S. Srivastva (Ed.), The executive mind. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983, pp. 25-57.
4.
ARGYRIS, C., & SCHON, D. A.Theory in practice: Increasing profesioinnl effectiveness. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, 1974.
5.
AUDET, M., LANDRY, M., & DERY, R.Science et resolution de probleme: Liens, difficultes et voies de depassement dans le champ des sciences de I'administration. Philosophy of the Social Sciences/Philosophie des Sciences Sociales, 1986, 16409-440.
6.
AXELROD, R., (Ed.). Structure of decision: The cognitive maps of political elites. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976.
7.
BECK, B. E., & MOORE, L. F.Linking the host culture to organizational variables. In P J. Frost, L. F. Moore, M. R. Louis, C.C. Lundberg and J. Martin (Eds.), Organizational culture. Beverly Hills: Sage, 1985, pp. 335-354.
8.
BLAKAR, R. M.Language as a means of social power. In R. Rommetveit and R. M. Blakar (Eds.), Studies of language, thought and communication. London: Academic Press, 1979, pp. 104-145.
9.
BLUMER, H.Sociological implications of the thought of George Herbert Mead. American Journal of Sociology, 1966, 71(5), 535-548.
10.
BODEN, D.The business of talk. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1994.
11.
BOUGON, M. G.Uncovering cognitive maps: The self-Q technique. In G. Morgan (Ed.), Beyond method. Strategies for social research. Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983, pp. 173-188.
12.
BOUGON, M. G.Congregate cognitive maps: A unified dynamic theory of organization and strategy. Journal of Management Studies, 1992, 29(3), 369-389.
13.
BOUGON, M. G., WEICK, K. E., & BINKHORST, D.Cognition in organizations: An analysis of the Utrecht Jazz Orchestra. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1977, 22606-639.
CHANLAT, J.-E (Ed.). L'individa dans lorganisation: les dimensions oublijes. Collection "Sciences de ladministration." Quebec/Paris: Les Presses de l'Universit6 Laval/Editions ESKA, 1990.
16.
CLANCY, J. J.The invisible powers: The language of business. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1989.
17.
CONGER, J. A.Inspiring others: The language of leadership. Academy of Management Executive, 1991, 5(1), 31-45.
18.
COSSETTE, P. (Ed.). Cartes cognitives et organisations. Collection "Sciences de l'administration." Quebec/Paris: Les Presses de l'Universit6 Laval/Editions ESKA, 1994(a).
19.
COSSETTE, P Developpement d'une m6thode systematique d'aide a la mise au point de la vision strategique chez le proprietaire-dirigeant de PME: Une etude exploratoire. In Actes de la 39e Conference annuelle mondiale de lintemational Council for Small Business (ICSB). Strasbourg, 1994, pp. 73-82.(b)
20.
COSSELTE, P., & AUDET, M.Mapping of an idiosyncratic schema. Journal of Management Studies, 1992, 29(3), 325-347.
21.
COSSETTE, P., & AUDET, M.Qu'est-ce qu'une carte cognitive? In P Cossette (Ed.), Cartes cognitives et organisations, Collection "Sciences de l'administration." Quebec/Paris: Les Presses de l'Universit6 Laval/Editions ESKA, 1994, pp. 13-33.
22.
DE SAUSSURE, F.Cours de linguistique generale (1st ed., 1916). Paris: Payot, 1989.
23.
DEARBORN, D. C., & SIMON, H. A.Selective perception: A note on the departmental identifications of executives. Sociometty, 1958, 21, 140-144.
24.
DEETZ, S.Metaphors and the discursive production and reproduction of organization. In L. Thayer (Ed.), Communication-organization. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986, pp. 168-182.
25.
DENIS, M.Image et cognition. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1989.
26.
DOLAN, S. L., & LAMOUREUX, G.Initiation a la psychologie du travail. Boucherville, Quebec: Gaetan Morin, 1990.
27.
DONNELLON, A.Language and communication in organizations: Bridging cognition and behavior. In H. P. Sims, Jr. and D. A. Gioia (Eds.), The thinking organization: Dynamics of organizational social cognition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986, pp. 136-164.
28.
DONNELLON, A., GRAY, B., & BOUGON, M.Communication, meaning and organized action. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1986, 31, 43-55.
29.
DOWNEY, H. K., & BRIEF, A. P.How cognitive structures affect organizational design: Implicit theories of organizing. In H. P. Sims, Jr & D. A. Gioia (Eds.), The thinking organization: Dynamics of organizational social cognition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986, pp. 165-190.
30.
DUTTON, J. E., FAHEY, L., & NARAYANAN, V. K.Toward understanding strategic issue diagnosis. Strategic Management Journal, 1983, 4, 307-323.
31.
EDEN, C., & HUXHAM, C.Action research for the study of organizations. In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, & W R. Nord (Eds.), Handbook of organization studies. London: Sage, 1996, pp. 526-542.
32.
EDEN, C., JONES, S., & SIMS, D.Messing about in problems. Oxford: Pergamon, 1983.
33.
EVERED, R.The language of organization: The case of the Navy. In L. R. Pondy, P J. Frost, G. Morgan, and T C. Dandridge (Eds.), Organizational symbolism. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1983, pp. 125-144.
34.
EVERED, R., & LOUIS, M. R.Alternative perspectives in the organizational sciences: "Inquiry from the inside" and "inquiry from the outside. Academy of Management Review, 1981, 6, 385-395.
35.
FIOL, C. M., & HUFF, A. S.Maps for managers: Where are we? Where do we go from here?Journal of Management Studies, 1992, 29(3), 267-285.
36.
FORD, J. D., & HEGARTY, W. H.Decision makers' beliefs about the causes and effects of structure: An exploratory study. Academy of Management Journal, 1984, 27, 271-291.
37.
FRIEDLANDER, F.Patterns of individual and organizational learning. In S. Srivastva (Ed.), The executive mind. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983, pp. 192-220.
38.
GIOIA, D. A.Symbols, scripts, and sensemaking: Creating meaning in the organizational experience. In H. P. Sims, Jr. and D. A. Gioia (Eds.), The thinking organization: Dynamics of organizational social cognition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986, pp. 49-74. (a)
39.
GIOIA, D. A.Conclusion: The state of the art in organizational social cognition: A personal view. In H. P. Sims, Jr. and D. A. Gioia (Eds.), The thinking organization: dynamics of organizational social cognition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986, pp. 336-356. (b)
40.
GIOIA, D. A., DONNELLON, A., & SIMS, H. P. Jr.Communication and cognition in appraisal: A tale of two paradigms. Organization Studies, 1994, 10(4), 503-530.
41.
GIRIN, J.Le siege vertical: Vivre et communiquer dans une tour de bureaux. Annales des mines-Gerer et comprendre, 1987, 9, 4-14.
42.
GIRIN, J.Problmes du langage dans les organisations. In J.-F Chanlat (Ed.), L individu dans l 'organisation: Les dimensions oubliees. Collection "Sciences de I'administration." Quebec/Paris: Les Presses de l'Universit6 Laval/Editions ESKA, 1990, pp. 37-77.
43.
GRAY, B., BOUGON, M. G., & DONNELLON, A.Organizations as constructions and destructions of meaning. Jounzal of Management, 1985, 11(2), 83-98.
44.
GRIZE, J.-B.Logique naturelle et representations sociales. In D. Jodelet (Ed.), Les reprisentations sociales. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1989, pp. 152-168.
45.
ISENBERG, D. J.The structure and process of understanding. In H. P. Sims, Jr., and D. A. Gioia (Eds.), The thinking organization: Dynamics of organizational social cognition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986, pp. 238-262.
46.
JANIS, I. L.Victims of groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972.
47.
KUHN, T. S.The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.
48.
LANDRY, M. A.note on the concept of "problem."Organization Studies, 1995, 16(2) 315-343.
49.
LORD, R. G., & FOTI, R. J.Schema theories, information processing, and organizational behaviors. In H. P. Sims, Jr. and D. A. Gioia (Eds.). The thinking organization: Dynamics of organizational social cognition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986, pp. 20-48.
50.
MANGHAM, I. L.Power and performance in organizations. Oxford: Basic Blackwell, 1986.
51.
MARCH, J., & SIMON, H.Organizations. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1958.
52.
MINTZBERG, H.The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper and Row, 1973.
53.
MORGAN, G. Qualitative and action based research. In Actes du colloque 'Perspective de recherche pour le praticien." Rouyn: Universit6 du Qu6bec en Abitibi-Thmiscamingue, 1985, pp. 81-109.
54.
MORGAN, G. Images de lorganisation. Collection "Sciences de I'administration." Quebec: Les Presses de l'Universit6 Laval; Paris: Editions ESKA, 1989.
55.
MOSCOVICI, S.Communications processes and the properties of language. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 3). New York: Academic Press, 1967, pp. 225-270.
56.
PFEFFER, J.Management as symbolic action: The creation and maintenance of organizational paradigms. In L. L. Cummings and B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1981, pp. 1-52.
57.
PONDY, L. R.The role of metaphors and myths in organization and in the facilitation of change. In L. R. Pondy, P J. Frost, G. Morgan, and T C. Dandridge (Eds.), Organizational symbolism. Greenwich, CT. JAI Press, 1983, pp. 157-166.
58.
PONDY, L. R., & MITROFF, I. I.Beyond open system models of organization. In B. M. Staw (Ed.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 1). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1979, pp. 3-39.
59.
RIME, B.Langage et communication. In S. Moscovici (Ed.), Psychologie sociale. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1984, pp. 415-446.
60.
SAPI R, E.Culture, language and personality. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964.
61.
SCHEIN, E.Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985.
62.
SILVERMAN, D.The theory of organizations. New York: Basic Books, 1971.
63.
SMIRCICH, L.Studying organizations as cultures. In G. Morgan (Ed.), Beyond method. Strategies for social research. Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983, pp. 160-172.
64.
SMOLENSKI, P.IA connexionniste, IA symbolique et cerveau. In D. Andler (Ed.), Introduction aux sciences cognitives. Collection "Folio/ Essais." Paris: Gallimard, 1992, pp. 77-106.
65.
STUBBART C. I., & RAMAPRASAD, A.Probing two chief executives schematic knowledge of the U.S. steel industry using cognitive maps. In R. Lamb and P Shrivastava (Eds.), Advances in strategic management. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1988, pp. 139-164.
66.
SUSMAN, G. I., & Evered, R. D.An assessment of the scientific merits of action research. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1978, 23582-603.
67.
WATZLAWICK, P.La realitj de la rdaliti. Paris: Seuil, 1978.
68.
WEICK, K. E.The social psychology of organizing. (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979.
69.
WEICK, K. E., & BOUGON, M. G.Organizations as cognitive maps: Charting ways to sucess and failure. In H. P. Sims, Jr. and D. A. Gioia (Eds.), The thinking organization: Dynamics of organizational social cognition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986, pp. 102-135.
70.
WHORF, B.Linguistique et anthropologie. Paris: Denoel-Gonthier, 1969.
71.
WILSON, D., & SPERBER, D.Ressemblance et communication. In D. Andler (Ed.), Introduction aux sciences cognitiv'es. Collection "Folio/Essais." Paris: Gallimard, 1992, pp. 219-238.
72.
WINOGRAD, T.What does it mean to understand language?Cognitive Science, 1980, 4, 209-241.
