This paper posits the concept of "appropriation" to explain the underlying ethos and rationale for seeking to secure the contribution of people to organizational functioning. Human resource management (HRM) practice is therefore largely underpinned by the objective of appropriating the human resource "value." This is ignored by the practitioner-oriented literature which has a financial interest in helping organizations to secure this value, and by the academic literature which is unwilling to confront the contradictions and uncomfortable truths inherent in such activities. The traditional approach to appropriation is characterized by such concerns as skill-formation, commitment to the organization, shared corporate values, and a reliance on formally constituted governance structures with a putative integrative ethos. This paper advocates a reconstitution of the appropriation regime to incorporate the concepts of knowledge and learning. We draw from the innovation management literature to highlight the problematic nature of appropriation and to clarify the implications of appropriation to the management of the knowledge that resides in people. Finally, we suggest how future research might proceed within an Appropriation-Learning (A-L) perspective.
ACKERMANN, K.-FA contingency model of HRM strategy. Empirical research findings reconsidered. Management Forum, 1986, Band 6, 65-83.
2.
AMIT, R., & SHOEMAKER, P J. H.Strategic assets and organizational rent. Strategic Management Journal, 1993, 14, 33-46.
3.
ANGLE, H., & PERRY, J.An empirical assessment of organizational commitment and organizational effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1981, 26, 1-13.
4.
AOKI, M.Information, incentives, and bargaining in the Japanese economy. Cambridge University Press, 1988.
5.
ARGYRIS, C.Actionable knowledge. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993.
6.
ARMSTRONG, M.A case of the emperor's new clothes. Personnel Management, 1987, August.
7.
ARYEE, S.The social organization of careers as a source of sustained competitive advantage. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1994, 5, 67-88.
8.
BARON, J. N., & BIELBY, W TBringing the firms back in: Stratification, segmentation, and the organization of work. American Sociological Review, 1980, 47, 175-188
9.
BARTLETT' C. A., & GHOSHAL, S.Managing across borders. London: Century, 1989.
10.
BAYTOS, L.The human resource side of acquisitions and divestiture. Human Resource Planning, 1986, 4, 50-59.
11.
BECKER, G.Human capital. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964.
12.
BEER, M., SPECTOR, B., LAWRENCE, P R., MILLS, Q. R., & WALTON, R. E.Managing human assets. The Free Press, 1984.
13.
BLYTON, P, & TURNBULL, P (eds.). Reassessing human resource management. London: Sage, 1992.
14.
BOWEN, D. E., & LAWLER, E. E., 111. Total quality-oriented human resources management. Organizational Dynamics, 1992, Spring, 29-41.
15.
BROWN, G. E, & READ, A. R.Personnel and training policies-Some lessons for Western companies. Long Range Planning, 1984, 7(2), 48-57.
16.
CAPELLI, P, & SINGH, H.Integrating human resource management and strategic management. In Lewin, D., Mitchell, O., & Scheller, P (eds.), Research frontiers in industrial relations. Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1992, pp. 165-192.
17.
CAUSER, G., & JONES, C.Responding to "skill shortages": Recruitment and retention in a high technology labour market. Human Resource Management Joumal, 1993, 3(1), 1-20.
18.
COOPEY, J. & HARTLEY, J.Reconsidering the case for organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Journal, 1991, 1(3), 18-32.
19.
DALTON, D. R., KRACKHARDT, D. M., & PORTER, L. WFunctional turnover: An empirical assessment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 716-721.
20.
DALTON, D. R., TODOR, W D., & KRACKHARDT, D. M.Turnover overstated: The functional taxonomy. Academy of Management Review, 1982, 7, 117-123.
EDSTROM, A., & GALBRAITH, J. R.Transfer of managers as a coordination and control strategy in multinational organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1977, 22 (June), 248-263.
25.
EVANS, PManagement development as glue technology. Human Resource Planning, 1989, 25(1), 85-106.
26.
EVANS, P, FARQUHAR, A., & LANDRETH, O.Fostering innovation through human resources: Lessons from practice. In Evans, P, Doz, Y., and Laurent, A. (eds.), Human resource management in international firms. Macmillan, 1989, pp. 169-190.
27.
FLAMHOLTZ, E. G., & LACEY, J.The implications of the economic theory of human capital for personnel management. Personnel Review, 1981, 10(1), 30-40.
28.
FOMBRUN, C., TICHY, N. M., & DEVANNA, M. A.Strategic human resource management. New York: Wiley, 1981.
29.
GIOIA, D. A., & CHITTIPEDDI, K.Sensemaking and sensegiving in strategic change initiation. Strategic Management Journal, 1991, 12(6), 433-448.
30.
GRANT, R. M.The resource-based theory of competitive advantage: Implications for strategy formulation. California Management Review, 1991, 33(3), 114-135.
31.
GUEST D. E.Employee commitment and control. In Hartley, J. F, and Stephenson, G. M. (eds.), Employment relations. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992, pp. 111-135.
32.
GUEST D. E.Human resource management and the American dream. Journal of Management Studies, 1990, 27, 377-397.
33.
HARRISON, J. R., & CARROLL, G. R.Keeping the faith: A model of cultural transmission in formal organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1991, 36, 552-582.
34.
HART, T J.Human resource management: Time to exercise the militant tendency. Employee Relations, 15(3), 29-36.
35.
HENDRY, C.Human Resource Management: A strategic approach to employment. Butterworth Heinemann, 1995.
36.
HIRSCHMAN, A. O.Exit, voice, and loyalty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970.
37.
HOFSTEDE, G.Culture's consequences. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1980.
38.
HORWITZ, F M.HRM: An ideological perspective. Personnel Review, 1990, 19(2), 10-15.
39.
ITAMI, H.Mobilizing invisible assets. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987.
40.
JACKOFSKY, E. FTurnover and job performance: An integrated process model. Academy of Management Review, 1984, 9, 74-83.
41.
JEMISON, D., & SITKIN, S.Acquisitions: The process can be the problem. Harvard Business Review, 1986, 64(2), 107-116.
42.
JONES O.Human resources, scientists, and internal reputation: The role of climate and job satisfaction. Human Relations, 1996, 49(3), 269-294.
43.
JONES, M.Efficiency and effectiveness in an African public administration context. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 1990, 3, 58-64.
44.
JONES, A. M., & HENDRY, C.The learning organization: Adult learning and organizational transformation. British Journal of Management, 1994, 5, 153-162.
45.
KAMOCHE, K.Competence-creation in the African public sector. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 1997, 10(4), 268-278.
46.
KAMOCHE, K.Strategic human resource management within a resource-capability view of the firm. Joumal of Management Studies, 1996, 33(2), 213-233.
47.
KAMOCHE, K.Rhetoric, ritualism and totemism in human resource management. Human Relations, 1995, 48, 367-385.
48.
KAMOCHE, K.A critique and a proposed reformulation of strategic human resource management. Human Resource Management Journal, 1994, 4(4), 29-43.
49.
KANTER, R. M.When giants learn to dance. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990.
50.
KANTER, R. M.The change masters. Corporate entrepreneurs at work. London: Unwin Paperbacks, 1985.
51.
KAY, J.Foundations of corporate success. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.
52.
KEENOY, THRM: Rhetoric, reality and contradiction. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1990, 1(3), 363-384.
53.
KEENOY, T, & ANTHONY, PHRM: Metaphor, meaning and morality. In Blyton and Turnbull, 1992.
54.
KEEP, E.Corporate training strategies: The vital component? In Storey (ed.), 1989, pp. 109-125.
55.
KERR, J., & SLOCUM, J. WManaging corporate culture through reward systems. Academy of Management Executive, 1987, 1(2), 99-108.
56.
KLEINGARTNER, A., & ANDERSON, C. S.Human resource management in high technology firms. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1987.
57.
KLINE, C., & PETERS, L. H.Behavioral commitment and tenure of new employees: A replication and extension. Academy of Management Journal, 1991, 34, p. 194-204.
58.
KOPELMAN, R. E., BRIEF, A. P, & GUZZO, R. A.The role of climate and culture in productivity. In Schneider, B. (ed.), Organizational climate and culture. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1990, pp. 282-318.
59.
LADO. A. A., & WILSON, M. C.Human resource systems and sustained competitive advantage. Academy of Management Review, 1994, 19, 699-727.
60.
LADO, A. A., BOYD, N. G., & WRIGHT, PA Competency-based model of sustainable competitive advantage: Toward a conceptual integration. Journal of Management, 1992, 18. 77-91.
61.
LAHTEENMAKI, S., & PAALUMAKI, A.The retraining and mobility motivations of key personnel: Dependencies in the Finnish business environment. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1993, 4, 377-406.
62.
LANE, C.Vocational training and new production concepts in the Federal Republic of Germany: Some lessons for Britain. Industrial Relations Journal, 1990, 21(4), 247-260.
63.
LAZONICK, WBusiness organization and the myth of the market economy, Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
64.
LEE, T W, & MITCHELL, T R.An alternative approach: The unfolding model of voluntary employee turnover. Academy of Management Review, 1994, 19, 51-89.
LEGGE, K.Human resource management: A critical analysis. In Storey (ed.), 1989, pp. 19-40.
67.
LINCOLN, J. R., & KALLEBERG, A. L.Culture, control, and commitment: A study of work organization and work attitudes in the United States and Japan. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
68.
LOBEL, S. A.Global leadership competencies: Managing to a different drumbeat. Human Resource Management, 1990, 29(1), 39-47.
69.
LOUIS, M. R.Surprise and sensemaking: What newcomers experience in entering unfamiliar organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1980, 25, 226-251.
70.
LOVERIDGE, R.Incremental innovation and appropriative learning. In Loveridge, R., and Pitt, M.The strategic management of technological innovation. Chichester: John Wiley, 1990.
71.
LOVERIDGE, R., & MOK, A.Theories of labour market segmentation. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1979.
72.
LUTHANS, F, BAACK, D., & TAYLOR, L.Organizational commitment: Analysis of antecedents. Human Relations, 1987, 40(4), 219-236.
73.
McKINLAY, A., & STARKEY, K.Strategy and human resource management. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1992, 3(3), 435-450.
74.
MARCH, J. G.Footnotes to organizational change. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1981, 26, 563-577.
75.
MARCH, J. G., & SIMON, H. A.Organizations, New York: Wiley, 1958.
76.
MOBLEY, W H.Some unanswered questions in turnover and withdrawal research. Academy of Management Review, 1982, 7, 111-116.
77.
MOWDAY, R. T, PORTER, L. W, & STEERS, R. M.Employee-organizational linkages: The psychology of commitment, absenteeism and turnover. New York: Academic Press, 1982.
78.
MUELLER, FHuman resources as strategic assets: An evolutionary resource-based theory. Journal of Management Studies, 1996, 33(6), 757-786.
79.
MUELLER, FTeams between hierarchy and commitment: Change strategies and the internal environment. Journal of Management Studies, 1994, 31(3), 383-404.
80.
MUELLER, FUnderstanding technological leadership: Observations from the automobile industry. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 1993, 5(2), 15-26.
81.
MUELLER, F, & DYERSON, R.Managerial choice in the appropriation of knowledge-Results from the public sector and financial services. Aston University Business School Working Paper 94/5, 1994.
82.
NEAR, J.Organizational commitment among Japanese and U.S. workers. Organization Studies, 1989, 10(3), 281-300.
83.
NELSON, R. R., & WINTER, S. G.An evolutionary theory of economic change. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982.
84.
NORDHAUG, O. & GRONHAUG, K.Competencies as resources in firms. InternationalJournal of Human Resource Management, 1994, 5, 89-106.
85.
OSTERMAN, PEmployment futures: Reorganization, dislocation, and public policy. Oxford University Press, 1988.
86.
OUCHI, W G.Markets, bureaucracies and clans. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1980, 25, 129-141.
87.
OUCHI, W G., & WILKINS, A. L.Organizational culture. Annual Review of Sociology, 1985, 11, 457-483.
88.
PENROSE, E.The theory of the growth of the firm. London: Blackwell, 1959.
89.
PETTIGREW, A., & WHIPI, R.Managing change for competitive success. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993.
90.
PRIETULA, M. J., & SIMON, H. A.The experts in your midst. Harvard Business Review, Jan.-Feb. 1989, 120-124.
91.
PURCELL, J.The impact of corporate strategy on human resource management. In Storey (ed.), 1989.
92.
ROETHLISBERGER, F. J., & DICKSON, W J.Management and the worker. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1939.
93.
ROSEN, B., MIGUEL, M., & PEIRCE, E.Stemming the exodus of women managers. Human Resource Management, 1989, 28(4), 475-491.
94.
ROTHWELL, W. J., & KAZANAS, H. C.Strategic human resource development. Prentice-Hall, 1989.
95.
SALANCIK, G.Commitment and the control of organizational behavior and belief. In Staw, B., and Salancik, G. (eds), New directions in organizational behavior. Chicago: St. Clair Press, 1977.
96.
SCHEIN, E. H.Organizational culture: What it is and how to change it. In Evans, P, Doz, Y., and Laurent, A. (eds.), Human resource management in international firms. London: Macmillan, 1989.
97.
SCHEIN, E. H.Increasing organizational effectiveness through better human resource planning and development. Sloan Management Review, 1977, 19(1), 1-20.
98.
SCHRADER, S.Informal technology transfer between firms: Cooperation through information trading. Research Policy, 1991, 20, 153-170.
99.
SCHULER, R. S., & JACKSON, S. E.Linking competitive strategies with human resource management practices. Academy of Management Executive, 1987, 1, 207-219.
100.
SCHWEIGER, D. L., IVANCEVICH, J. M. & POWER, F R.Executive action for managing human resources before and after acquisition. Academy of Management Executive, 1987, 1, 127-138.
101.
SELZNICK, PTVA. and the grass roots. Berkeley: UCR, 1949 (1966, Harper & Row).
102.
SHERIDAN, J. E.Organizational culture and employee retention. Academy of Management Journal, 1992, 35, 1036-1056.
103.
SHRIVASTAVA, PIntegrating strategy formulation with organizational culture. The Journal of Business Strategy, 1985, 5(3), 103-111.
104.
SHRIVASTAVA, PA typology of organizational learning systems. Journal of Management Studies, 20(1), 7-28.
105.
SIEBERT, W S., & ADDISON, J. TInternal labour markets: Causes and consequences. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 1991, 7(1), 76-92.
106.
SIEHL, L., & SMITH, D.Avoiding the loss of a gain: Retaining top managers in an acquisition. Human Resource Management, 1990, 29, 167-185.
107.
SKINNER, W.Big hat, no cattle: Managing human resources. Harvard Business Review, 1981, 59, 106-114.
108.
STOREY, J. (ed.). Human resource management: A critical text. London: Routledge, 1995.
109.
STOREY, J.Developments in the management of human resources. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
110.
STOREY, J. (ed.). New perspectives on human resource management. London: Routledge, 1989.
111.
STREECK, WThe uncertainties of management in the management of uncertainty. Work, Employment & Society, 1987, 1(3).
112.
TEECE, D.Capturing value from technological innovation: Integration, strategic partnering, and licensing decisions. In Guile, B. R., and Brooks, H. (eds.), Technology and global industry. Companies and nations in the world economy, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1987.
113.
TUNG, R. L.Expatriate assignments: Enhancing success and minimising failure. Academy of Management Executive, 1987, 1, 117-126.
114.
TUSHMAN, M. L., & ANDERSON, PTechnological discontinuities and organizational environments. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1986, 31, 439-465.
115.
WEBER, M.Economy and society. Roth, G., and Wittich, G. (eds.). New York: Bedminster Press, 1921/1968.
116.
WEVER, K. S., BERG, P. & KOCHAN, TSkill training in the US. and Germany: The importance of participation. Washington, D.C.: Economy Policy Institute, 1993.
117.
WILKINS, A. L., & OUCHI, W G.Efficient cultures: Exploring the relationship between culture and organizational performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1983, 28, 468-481.
118.
WILLIAMSON, O. E.The economic institutions of capitalism. New York: Free Press, 1985.
119.
WINTER, S.Knowledge and competence as strategic assets. In Teece, D. J. (ed.), The competitive challenge: Strategies for industrial innovation and renewal. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1987, pp. 159-184.
120.
WRIGHT, P M., McMAHAN, G. C., & McWILLIAMS., A.Human resources and sustained competitive advantage: A resource-based perspective. International Joumal of Human Resource Management, 1994, 5, 301-326.
