Supervision has evolved from managing and directing workers to supporting workers. Supervisors are key people that workers go to for assistance with personal problems. This article reviews the contributions of various theoretical models to our understanding of supervisor intervention with troubled workers and identifies factors that have been left unexplored in the research. From this analysis, I explain how social identity theory may provide a framework that overcomes many of the limitations of the existing knowledge in this area. Social identity theory has the potential to capture the more personal aspects of the helping process between supervisors and workers that go beyond workers' job performance and productivity, including supervisors' beliefs and attitudes, personal experiences, and social identification with the organization and the work group.
ALLEN, P, & STEPHENSON, G.Intergroup understanding and size of organization. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 1983, 21, 312-329.
3.
ARGYRIS, C., DUBIN, R., HAIRE, M., LUCE, R., WARNER, W, & WHYTE, WSocial science approaches to business behavior. Homewood, IL: Dorsey-Irwin, 1962.
4.
ASHFORTH, B., & MAEL, FSocial identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 1989, 14(1), 20-39.
5.
BANTA, W, & TENNANT FCombatting substance abuse in the work place. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1989.
6.
BARKER, J., & TOMPKINS, P.Identification in the self-managing organization. Human Communication Research, 1994, 21(2), 223-240.
7.
BAYER, G., & GERSTEIN, L.Supervisory attitudes toward impaired workers: A factor analytic study of the behavioral index of troubled employees. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1988, 24, 413-422.
8.
BEYER, J., & TRICE, H.Design and implementation of job based alcoholism programs: Constructive confrontation strategies and how they work. In Occupational alcoholism: A review of research issues. NIAAA. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982, pp. 181-239.
9.
BIELBY, W, & BIELBY, D.Family ties: Balancing commitments to work and family in dual earner households. American Sociological Review, 1989, 54, 776-789.
10.
BROWN, R., CONDOR, S., MATHEWS, A., WADE, G., & WILLIAMS, J.Explaining intergroup differentiation in an industrialist organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 1986, 59, 273-286.
11.
CULBERT, S.Mind-set management. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
12.
DAVIS, K.Human relations at work: The dynamics of organizational behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967.
13.
DAY, R. & HAMBLIN, R.Some effects of close and punitive styles of supervision. In P Lawrence and J. Seiler (Eds.), Organizational Behavior and Administration. Homewood, IL: Dorsey-Irwin, 1964, pp. 425-426.
14.
DEAUX, K.Reconstructing social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1993, 19(l), 4-12.
DUTTON, J., DUKERICH, J., & HARQUAIL C.Organizational images and member identification. Administrative Science Quarterl, 1994, 39, 239-263.
17.
FERNANDEZ, J.Child care and corporate productivity. Lexington: D.C. Heath and Co., 1986.
18.
FLEISHMAN, E., HARRIS, E., & BURTI H.Leadership and supervision in industry. Columbus: Personnel Research Board, Ohio State University, 1955.
19.
FOOTE, A., & ERFURIT J.Effectiveness of comprehensive employee assistance programs at reaching alcoholics. Journal of Drug Issues, 1981, Spring, 217-231.
20.
FRISCH, M., & LEEPSON, R.Handling the troubled employee: The referral process in review. EAP Digest Annual, 1983-1984, 190-193.
21.
GALINSKY, E.Labor force participation of dual-earner couples and single parents. In Investing in People, Background Papers (Vol. 1I). Commission on Workforce Quality and Labor Market Efficiency, U.S. Department of Labor, 1989, pp. 1259-1312.
22.
GARDNER, B.Human relations in industry. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin (1945).
23.
GARZA, R., & BORCHERi', J.Maintaining social identity in a mixed-gender setting: Minority/majority status and cooperative/competitive feedback. Sex Roles, 1990, 22(11/12), 679-691.
24.
GARZA R., & HERRINGER, L.Social identity: A mutidimensional approach. Joumal of Social Psychology, 1987, 127(3), 299-308.
25.
GERSTEIN, L.The bystander-equity model of supervisory helping behavior: Past and future research on the prevention of employee problems. In P M. Roman (Ed.), Alcohol Problem Intervention in the Work Place: Employee Assistance Programs and Strategic Alternatives. Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 1990, pp. 203-225.
26.
GERSTEIN, L., & BAYER, G.Employee assistance programs: A systematic investigation of their use. Journal of Counseling and Development, 1988, 66, 294-297.
27.
GERSTEIN, L., EICHENHOFER, D., BAYER, G., VALUTIS, W, & JANKOWSKI, J.EAP referral training and supervisors' beliefs about troubled workers. Employee Assistance Quarterly, 1989, 4, 15-30.
28.
GOOGINS, B. The Use and Implementation of Occupational Alcoholism Programs by Supervisors: An Analysis. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Florence Heller Graduate School for Advanced Studies in Social Welfare, Brandeis University, 1978.
29.
GOOGINS, B., & KURTZ, N.Discriminating participating and nonparticipating supervisors in occupational alcoholism programs. Journal of Drug Issues, 1981, Spring, 199-215.
30.
GUTIERREZ, L., GLENMAYE, L., & DELOIS, K.The organizational context of empowerment practice: Implications for social work administration. Social Work, 1995, 40(2), 249-257.
HARTOG, S., HICKEY, D., REICHMAN, W, & GRACIN, L.EAP referral and the supervisor: An examination of perceptions of situational constraints and organizational barriers. Journal of Employee Assistance Research, 1993, 2(1), 47-63.
33.
HOGG, M.Social identity and group cohesiveness. In J. Turner (ed.), Rediscovering the Social Group. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1987, pp. 89-116.
34.
HOGG, M., & ABRAMS, D.Social motivation, self-esteem and social identity. In D. Abrams and M. Hogg (Eds.), Social identity theory: Constructive and critical advances, New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990, pp. 28-47.
35.
HOOPER, M.A multivariate approach to the measurement and analysis of social identity. Psychological Reports, 1985, 57, 315-325.
36.
HOPKINS, K. Supervisor Intervention with Troubled Workers. Doctoral dissertation, School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago, 1993.
37.
HUGHES, D., & GALINSKY, E.Balancing work and family lives: Research and corporate applications. In A. Gottfried and A. Gottfried (Eds.), Maternal employment and children's development: Longitudinal research. New York: Plenum Press, 1988, pp. 233-268.
38.
KARASEK, R., TRIANTIS, K., & CHAUDHRY, S.Co-worker and supervisor support as moderators of associations between task characteristics and mental strain. Joumal of Occupational Behavior, 1982, 3, 181-200.
39.
KRAMER, R.Intergroup relations and organizational dilemmas: The role of categorization processes. In L. L. Cummings and B. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior:Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1991, pp. 191-228.
40.
KRAUSE, N.Stress, alcohol use, and depressive symptoms in later life. The Gerontologist, 1995, 35(3), 296-307.
41.
LAMBERT, S., & HOPKINS, K.Occupational conditions and workers' sense of community: Variations by gender and race. American Journal of Community Psychology, 1995, 23(2), 151-179.
42.
LAMBERT, S., & HOPKINS, K.Added Benefits: The Link Between Family-Responsive Policies and Work Performance at Fel-Pro Incorporated. Research Report, Fel-Pro Project, School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago, 1993.
43.
LEWIS, K. Employee Assistance Programs: The State of the Art of Mental Health Services in Government and Industry. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, 1981.
44.
LIKERT, R.The human organization. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967.
45.
LOBEL, S.Allocation of investment in work and family roles: Alternative theories and implications for research. Academy of Management Review, 1991, 6(3), 507-521.
MADONIA, J.Handling emotional problems in business and industry. Social Casework, 1985, 66, 587-593.
48.
MANDY, R. (1987). People problems: Substance use and abuse. Management Solutions, 1987, 32, 22-24.
49.
MANN, F, & DENT, J.The supervisor: Member of two organizational families. Harvard Business Review, 1954, November-December, 103-112.
50.
MASI, D.Designing employee assistance programs. New York: American Management Association (AMA), 1984.
51.
MATTESON, M., & IVANCEVICH, J.Controlling work stress: Effective human resource and management strategies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1987.
52.
MILES, J.How to help troubled workers. Computer Decisions, 1985, 17(3), 66-76.
53.
MILES, R.Human relations or human resources. Harvard Business Review, 1963, 43(4), 148-157.
54.
MYERS, D.Employee problem prevention and counseling. Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 1985.
55.
NIELSEN, D.Partnering with employees. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1993.
56.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH (NIMH). What to Do When an Employee Is Depressed: A Guide for Supervisors. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Publication No. 91-1792, 1991.
57.
NORD, J.Predictors of supervisors' referrals of employees to an employee assistance program. Employee Assistance Quarterly, 1989, 5(2), 21-40.
58.
OLMSTEAD, M.The effect of the group on the individual. In R. Dubin (Ed.), Human relations in administration. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1974, pp. 149-160.
59.
PELZ, D.Influence: Key to effective leadership in the first line supervisor. Personnel, 1952, 29, 209-217.
60.
RAPP, C., & POERTNER, J.Social administration: A client-centered approach. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishing Group, 1992.
61.
REPETTI, R.Individual and common components of the social environment at work and psychological well-being. Joumal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1987, 52, 710-720.
62.
RODGERS, F, AND RODGERS, C.Business and the facts of family life. Harvard Business Review, 1989, November-December, 320-327.
63.
ROMAN, PJob characteristics and the identification of deviant drinking. Joumal Of Drug Issues, 1981, Summer, 357-364.
64.
ROMAN, PMedicalization and social control in the workplace: Prospects for the 1980's. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1980, 16(3), 407-422.
65.
ROSSE, J., CROWN, D., & FELDMAN, H.Alternative solutions to the workplace drug problem: Results of a survey of personnel managers. Journal of Employment Counseling, 1990, 27(2), 60-75.
66.
ROETHLISBERGER, FThe foreman: Master and victim of double talk. Harvard Business Review, 1945, 23, 285-294.
67.
SANFORD, A.Human relations: The theory and practice of organizational behavior. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing, 1977.
68.
SCHWARTZ, R.Confronting problem employees: A dilemma for supervisors. EAP Digest, 1987, 7(2), 72-73.
69.
SKEVINGTON, S.A place for emotion in social identity theory. In S. Skevington and D. Baker (Eds.), The social identity of women, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1989, pp. 40-58.
70.
SONNENSTUHL, W, & TRICE, H.Strategies for employee assistance programs: The crucial balance. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1990.
71.
STRAUSS, G.The changing role of the working supervisor. The Journal of Business of the University of Chicago, 1957, 30, 202-211.
72.
TAJFEL, H.Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. London: Academic Press, 1978.
73.
TRICE, H., & BEYER, J.Employee assistance programs: Blending performance-oriented and humanitarian ideologies to assist emotionally disturbed employees. In J. R. Greenley (Ed.), Research In Community And Mental Health. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1984, pp. 245-297.
74.
TRICE, H., & ROMAN, PSpirits and demons at work: Alcohol and other drugs on the job. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972.
75.
TRICE, H., & SONNENSTUHL, WDrinking behavior and risk factors related to the work place: Implications for research and prevention. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1988, 24, 327-346.
TURNER, J.Rediscovering the social group. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1987.
78.
VAN DYNE, L., GRAHAM, J., & DIENESCH, R.Organizational citizenship behavior: Construct redefinition, operationalization, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 1994, 37.
79.
WALTON, R.From control to commitment in the workplace. In J. Gabarro (Ed.), Managing people and organizations. Boston: Harvard Business School Publications, 1992, pp. 487-498.
80.
WAYMAN, M.The corporation as social worker: One response to smart machines that put people out of work. Canadian Business, 1980, 53(7), 171-172.
81.
WEISS, R.Managerial ideology and the social control of deviance in organizations. New York: Praeger, 1986.
82.
WRICH, J.Beyond testing: Coping with drugs at work. In J. Gabarro (Ed.), Managingpeople and organizations. Boston: Harvard Business School Publications, 1992, pp. 543-553.
83.
WRICH, J.The employee assistance program. NIAAA. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980.
84.
WRIGHT J.EAP: An important supervisory tool. Supervisory Management, 1984, 29(12), 15-23.
85.
YUNKER, G.Issues in the management of human behavior: Analyses, explorations, and insights. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1990.
