This paper develops a model of executive leadership consisting of four competing roles: Vision Setter, Motivator, Analyzer, and Task Master. These four roles are operationalized and hypotheses are then tested concerning their relationships to three dimensions of firm performance using data collected from a sample of 916 top managers. Results suggest that CEOs with high "behavioral complexity" - the ability to play multiple, competing roles - produce the best firm performance, particularly with respect to business performance (growth and innovation) and organizational (stakeholder) effectiveness. Executive leadership role had little to do with firms' financial performance.
AGUILAR, F.Scanning the business environment, New York: Macmillan, 1967.
2.
ANSOFF, I.Corporate Strategy. New York: McGraw Hill, 1965.
3.
BARNARD, C.The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948.
4.
BASS, B.Stogdill's handbook of leadership. New York: Free Press, 1981.
5.
BENNIS, W., & NANUS, B.Leaders. New York: Harper and Row, 1985.
6.
BIRLEY, S.Finding the New Firm. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management Proceedings, Boston, MA: 1984.
7.
BLOCK, P.The empowered manager. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987.
8.
BOBKO, P.Removing assumptions of bipolarity: Towards variation and circularity. Academy of Management Review, 1985, 19, 99-108.
9.
BOURGEOIS, L. J., & EISENHARDT, K.Strategic decision processes in high velocity environments: Four cases in the microcomputer industry, Management Science, 1988, 14, 16-835.
10.
BOWERS, D., & SEASHORE, S.Predicting organizational effectiveness with a four-factor theory of leadership. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1966, 11, 238-263.
11.
BURNS, J.Leadership. New York: Harper and Row, 1978.
12.
CAMPBELL, A., & YEUNG, S.Creating a sense of mission. Long Range Planning, 1991, 24, 10-20.
13.
CONGER, J., & KANUNGO, N.Toward a behavioral theory of charismatic leadership in organizational settings. Academy of Management Review, 1987, 12, 637-647.
14.
CONGER, J., & KANUNGO, N.Charismatic Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988.
15.
COTTON, J., VOLLRATH, D., FROGGATr, K., LENGNICK-HALL, M., & JENNINGS, K.Employee participation: Diverse forms and different outcomes. Academy of Management Review, 1988, 13, 8-22.
16.
DAFT, R., SORMUNEN, J., & PARKS, D.Chief executive scanning, environmental characteristics, and company performance: An empirical study. Strategic Management Journal, 1988, 9, 123-139.
17.
DAY, D., & LORD, R.Executive leadership and organizational performance: Suggestions for a new theory and methodology. Journal of Management. 1988, 14, 453-464.
18.
DENISON, D., HOOIJBERG, R., & QUINN, R.Paradox and Performance: A Theory of the Behavioral Complexity of Effective Leaders. Working paper, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1991.
DESS, G., & ROBINSON, R.Measuring organizational performance in the absence of objective measures: The case of the privately-held and conglomerate business unit. Strategic Management Journal, 1984, 5, 265-273.
21.
DESS, G., IRELAND, R. D., & HITT, M., Industry effects and strategic management research. Journal of Management, 1990, 16, 7-27.
22.
DONALDSON, G., & LORSCH, J.Decision making at the top. New York: Basic Books, 1983.
23.
DOW, T.The theory of charisma. Sociological Quarterly, 1969, 10, 306-318.
24.
DREYFUS, H., DREYFUS, S., & ATHANASION, T.Mind over machine: The power of human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer. New York: Free Press, 1986.
25.
DRUCKER, P.Management: Tasks, responsibilities, practices. New York: Harper and Row, 1973.
26.
FREDRICKSON, J., & MITCHELL, T.Strategic decision processes: Comprehensiveness and performance in an industry with an unstable environment. Academy of Management Journal, 1984, 27, 399-423.
27.
GOVINDARAJAN, V.Implementing competitive strategies at the business unit level: Implications for matching managers and strategies. Strategic Management Journal, 1989, 10, 251-270.
28.
GROVE, A.High output management. New York: Random House, 1983.
29.
GUPTA, A., & GOVINDARAJAN, V.Business unit strategy, managerial characteristics, and business unit effectiveness at strategy implementation. Academy of Management Journal, 1984, 27, 25-41.
HAMBRICK, D.Taxonomic approaches to studying strategy: Some conceptual and methodological issues. Journal of Management, 1984, 10, 27-41.
32.
HAMBRICK, D., Putting top managers back in the strategy picture. Strategic Management Journal, 1989, 10, 5-15.
33.
HAMBRICK, D., & MASON, P., Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 1984, 9, 193-206.
34.
HAMEL, G., & PRAHALAD, C. K.Strategic intent. Harvard Business Review, May-June 1989, 63-76.
35.
HOOIJBERG, R., & QUINN, R.Behavioral complexity and the development of effective managers. In J. Hunt and R. Phillips (Eds.), Strategic Management. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University, 1991.
36.
HUNT, J.Leadership: A new synthesis. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1991.
37.
IACOCCA, L., & NOVAK, W., Iacocca: An autobiography. New York: Bantam Books, 1984.
38.
ITAMI, H.Mobilizing invisible assets. Cambridg: Harvard University Press, 1987.
JACQUES, E.The development of intellectual capability: A discussion of stratified systems theory. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1986, 22, 361-383.
41.
JICK, T.Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: Triangulation in action. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1979, 24, 602-611.
42.
JONAS, H., FRY, R., & SRIVASTVA, S.The office of the CEO: Understanding the executive experience. Academy of Management Executive, 1990, 4, 36-48.
43.
KAPLAN, R.Trade routes: The manager's network of relationship. Organizational Dynamics, Spring 1984, 37-52.
44.
KATZ, D., & KAHN R.The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley, 1978.
45.
KATZ, R.Skills of an effective administration. Harvard Business Review, September-October 1974, 90-102.
46.
KEGAN, R.The evolving self. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982.
47.
KOTlaER, J.General managers are not generalists. Organizational Dynamics, 1982, 10, 4-19.
48.
KO'TER, J.What effective general managers really do. Harvard Business Review, November-December 1982, 156-167.
49.
KOTTER, J.The general managers. New York:Free Press, 1982.
50.
KOTTER, J.The Leadership Factor, New York: Free Press, 1988.
51.
LEVINSON, H., & ROSENTHAL, S.CEO: Corporate leadership in action. New York: Basic Books, 1984.
52.
LIEBERSON, S., & O'CONNOR, J.Leadership and organizational performance: A study of large corporations. American Sociological Review, 1972, 37, 117-130.
53.
LIKERT, R.The human organization. New York: McGraw Hill, 1967.
54.
LOCKE, E., & SCHWEIGER, D.Participation in decision-making: One more look. Research in Organizational Behavior, 1979, 1, 265-339.
55.
MAIN, J.Wanted: Leaders who can make a difference. Fortune, September 28, 1987, 92-102.
56.
McGREGOR, D.The human side of enteiprise. New York: McGraw Hill, 1966.
57.
MILLER, D.The role of multivariate "Q-techniques" in the study of organizations. Academy of Management Review, 1978, 3, 515-531.
58.
MILLER, D., KETS DE VRIES, M., & TOULOUSE, J.Top executive locus of control and its relationship to strategy-making, structure, and environment. Academy of Management Journal, 1982, 25, 237-253.
59.
MINTZBERG, H.The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper and Row, 1973.
60.
MINTZBERG, H.The manager's job: Folklore and fact. Harvard Business Review, July-August 1975, 49-61.
61.
MITROFF, I.Archetypal social systems analysis: On the deeper structure of human systems. Academy of Management Review, 1983, 8, 387-397.
NULTY, P.America's toughest bosses. Fortune, February 27, 1989, 40-54.
64.
OHMAE, K.The mind of the strategist. New York: Penguin Books, 1982.
65.
PARSONS, T.General theory in sociology. In R. Merton, L. Bloom, and L. Cottrell (Eds.), Sociology today: Problems and prospects. New York: Basic Books, 1959.
66.
QUINN, R.A competing values approach to organizational effectiveness. Public Productivity Review, 1981, 5, 122-140.
67.
QUINN, R.Beyond rational management. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988.
68.
QUINN, R., & CAMERON, K.Paradox and transfornation. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1988.
69.
QUINN, R., & ROHRBAUGH, J.A spatial model of effectiveness criteria: Toward a competing values approach to organizational analysis. Management Science, 1983, 29, 363-377.
70.
QUINN, R., SPREITZER, G., & HART, S.Challenging the assumptions of bipolarity: Interpenetration and managerial effectiveness. In S. Srivastva (Ed.), Executive and organization continuity. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992.
71.
SELZNICK, P.Leadership in administration. New York: Harper and Row, 1957.
72.
SHErTY, Y., & PERRY, S.Are top executives transferable across companies?Business Horizons, 1976, 19, 23-28.
73.
SHRIVASTAVA, P., & SCHNEIDER, S.Organizational frames of reference. Human Relations, 1984, 37, 795-809.
TICHY. N., & ULRICH, D.The leadership challenge -A call for the transformational leader. Sloan Management Review, Fall 1984, 59-67.
77.
TORBERT, W.Managing the corporate dream. Homewood: Irwin, 1987.
78.
VENKATRAMAN, N.The concept of fit in strategy research: Toward verbal and statistical correspondence. Academy of Management Review, 1989, 14, 423-444.
79.
VENKATRAMAN, N., & RAMANUJAM, V.Measurement of business performance in strategy research: A comparison of approaches. Academy of Management Review, 1986, 11, 801-814.
80.
VENKATRAMAN, N., & RAMANUJAM, V.Measurement of business economic performance: An examination of method convergence. Jortiral of Management, 1987, 13, 109-122.
81.
WEBER, M.The theory of social and economic organization (translated by A. Henderson and T. Parson). New York: Oxford Press, 1947.
