This longitudinal research compares the Program Planning Model (PPM) with a conventional (non-PPM) planning model in the context of creating 14 new child care programs in local Texas communities. The programs planned according to the PPM are found to have more efficient services and greater community acceptance during their first year of implementation than the programs that were developed with the conventional planning process. Due to the absence of random assignments, it is not demonstrated that these results are due to planning processes alone. However, evidence is presented that suggests the PPM projects outperformed the non-PPM projects because implementation success correlates with five key dimensions of planning behavior. Implementation success increases with: (1) participation of citizens, experts, and community interest groups; (2) involvement of a policy board representing partisan interests; (3) greater and more equal distribution of planning team effort; (4) process consultation in early planning phases; and (5) fewer deviations from the PPM procedural model in allphases of planning. The implications of this research for theory and practice will be discussed in a companion Part II of this article.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
ACKOFF, R. L.Redesigning the future, a systems approach to societal problems. New York: John Wiley, 1974.
2.
ARGYRIS, C.Intervention theory and method. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1970.
3.
BALES, R. F. & STRODTBECK, S. L.Phases in group problem-soving. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1951, 46, 485-495.
4.
BENNIS, W. G., BENNE, K. D., & CHIN, R., (eds.). The planning of change. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961.
5.
CLARK, B. R.Interorganizational patterns in education. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1965, 10, 224-237.
6.
CLARK, T.Community structure, decision making, budget expenditures, and urban renewal in 51 American communities. American Sociological Review, 1968, 33, 546-593.
7.
COHEN, M. D., MARCH, J. G., & OLSEN, J. P.A garbage can model of organizational choice. Administrative Science Quiarterly, 1, 17, 1-25.
8.
DAHL, ROBERT A.Who governs?New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961.
9.
DALTON, G. W., LAWRENCE, P. R., & GREINER, L. E.Organizational change and development. Homewood, Illinois: Irwin-Dorsey Press, 1970.
10.
DELBECQ, A. L., & VAN DE VEN, A. H.A group process model for problem identification and program planning. Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciecne, 1971, 7, 466-492.
11.
DELBECQ, A. L., VAN DE VEN, A. H., & GUSTAFSON, D. H.Group techniques for program planning. Glenview, Illinois: Scott-Foresman, 1975.
12.
DELBECQ, A. L., VAN DE VEN, A. H., & WALLACE, R.Critical problems in health planning. Paper presented at 32nd Annual Academy of Management Conference, August, 1972.
13.
FRIEDMANN, J.Retracking America: A theory of transactive planning. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1973.
14.
GREINER, L. E.Patterns of organizational change. In G. Dalton, P. R. Lawrence, & L. E. Greiner (Eds.), Organizational change and development. Homewood, Illinois: Irwin-Dorsey Press, 1970
15.
HAGE, J., & AIKEN, M.Social change in complex organizations. New York: Random House, 1970.
16.
HAVELOCK, R. G.Planning for innovation through dissemination and utilization of knowledge. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1973.
17.
HOUSE, R. J.A predictive theory of management development. Harvard Business Review, 1963.
18.
KOENIG, R. & VAN DE VEN, A. H.An empirical analysis of alternative techniques in program planning. Paper presented at American Institute of Decision Sciences Annual Conference, Cincinatti, Ohio, 1975.
19.
LEWIN, K.Frontiers in Group Dynamics. Human Relations, 1947, 1, 5-41.
20.
LINDBLOM, C.The intelligence of democracy, New York: Free Press, 1965.
21.
LIPPITT, R., WATSON, J., & WESTLEY, B.The dynamics of planned change. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1958.
22.
MARCH, J. G., & SIMON, H. A.Organizations. New York: John Wiley, 1958.
23.
MAIER, N. R. F.Maximizing Personal Creativity Through Better Problem-Solving. Personnel Administration, 1964, 27, 14-18.
24.
MAIER, N. R. F., & HOFFMAN, L. R.Quality of first and second solution on group problem solving. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1960, 44, 278-283.
25.
MAIER, N. R. F., & SOLEM, A. R.The contribution of the discussion leader to the quality of group thinking. Human Relations, 1952, 3, 155-174.
26.
MARRIS, P., & REIN, M.Dilemmas of Social Reform, (2nd ed.). Chicago: Aldine, 1973.
27.
MINTZBERG, H., RAISINGHANI, D., & THEORET, A.The structure of "unstructured" decision processes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1976, 21, 246-275.
28.
OZBEKHAN, H.Planning and human action. In P. A. Weiss (ed.), Hierarchically organized systems in theory and practice. New York: Hafner.
29.
PFEFFER, J.Power and Resource Allocation in Organizations. In Barry M. Staw and Gerald R. Salancik (Eds.). New Directions in Organizational Behavior, Chicago: St. Clair Press, 1977.
30.
PRESSMAN, S., & WILDAVSKY, H.Implementation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973.
31.
RABINOVITZ, F. F.City politics and planning. Chicago: Aldine, Atherton, 1969.
32.
ROTTER, G. S., & PORTUGAL, S. M.Group and individual effects in problem solving. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1969, 53, 338-341.
33.
SHEIN, E. H.Process consultation. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969.
34.
THOMPSON, J. D.Organizations in action. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.
35.
THOMPSON, J. D., & TUDEN, A.Strategies, structures, and processes of organizational decision. In J. D. Thompson et al. (Eds.). Comparative studies in administration, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1959.
36.
TRIST, E. L.Action research and adaptive planning. In A. W. Clark (Ed.), Experimenting with Organizational Life. New York: Plenum, 1976.
37.
VAN DE VEN, A. H.Group decision making and effectiveness. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1974.
38.
VAN DE VEN, A. H.Early planning, implementation barriers, and performance of new organizations. In J. R. Kimberly and R. H. Miles, The Organization Life Cycle: New Perspectives for Organization Design and Development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1980.
39.
VAN DE VEN, A. H., & KOENIG, R. A.process model for program planning and evaluation. Journal of Economics and Business, 1976, 28, 161-170.
40.
WARREN, R. L.Truth, love, and social change. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1971.
41.
WEICK, K. E.Enactment processes in organizations. In Barry M. Staw and Gerald R. Salancik (Eds.). New Directions in Organizational Behavior, Chicago: St. Clair Press, 1977.
42.
WILENSKY, H. L., & LEBEAUX, C. N.Industrial society and social welfare. New York: Free Press, 1965.
43.
ZALD, M.Urban differentiation, characteristics of boards of directors, and organizational effectiveness. American Journal of Sociology, 1967, 73, 261-272.
