Previous research found that organizational commitment is positively related to employee well-being. However, in the current age of contingent work, transitions, and `protean careers', the advisability of commitment is questionable. Therefore, we analyzed the role of organizational commitment in one paradigmatic area of contingent work arrangements: temporary agency work. In contrast to standard workers, temporary agency workers have to deal with two organizations: the temporary agency and client organization. Results revealed an ambivalent role of organizational commitment for temporary workers. Cross-sectional commitment towards the client organization had positive effects on workers' well-being, whereas commitment towards the agency had no effects. However, longitudinal analyses revealed that commitment to the client was detrimental to workers' well-being when they experienced reassignment to another client. In sum, we found beneficial and dysfunctional effects of organizational commitment on well-being, which suggest the reconsideration of the role of organizational commitment for individuals in unstable work arrangements.
Allen, N.J. & Meyer, J.P.The measurement and the antecedents of affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology , 1990, 53, 337-48.
2.
Antoni, M. & Jahn, E.Do changes in regulation affect employment duration in temporary work agencies? IZA discussion paper, Bonn, 2006, 2343. Available online at: [ http://www.iab.de/de/321/section.aspx/Publikation/k060927802].
3.
Aronsson, G.A new employment contract. Scandinavian Journal of Environmental Health, 2001, 27, 361-4.
4.
Aronsson, G., Gustafsson, K. & Dallner, M.Work environment and health in different types of temporary jobs. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 2002 , 11, 151-75.
5.
Aust, B., Peter, R. & Siegrist, J.Stress management in bus drivers: A pilot study based on the model of effort-reward imbalance. International Journal of Stress Management, 1999, 4, 297-305.
6.
Barling, J. & Gallagher, D.G.Part-time employment. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1996, 11, 241-77 (Eds C.L. Cooper & I.T. Robertson).
7.
Bauer, T.N. & Truxillo, D.M.Temp-to-permanent employees: A longitudinal study of stress and selection success. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2000, 5, 337-64.
8.
Baumeister, R.F. & Leary, M.R.The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 1995, 117, 497-529.
9.
Beard, K.M. & Edwards, J.R.Employees at risk: Contingent work and the psychological experience of contingent workers. In C.L. Cooper & D.M. Rousseau (Eds), Trends in organizational behavior, 2. New York: Wiley, 1995, pp. 109-26.
10.
Begley, T.M. & Czajka, J.M.Panel analysis of the moderating effects of commitment on job satisfaction, intent to quit, and health following organizational change. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1993, 78, 552-6.
11.
Bishop, J.W., Goldsby, M.G. & Neck, C.P.Who goes? Who cares? Who stays? Who wants to? The role of contingent workers and corporate layoff practices. Journal of Managerial Psychology , 2001, 17, 298-315.
12.
Boyce, A.S., Ryan, A.M., Imus, A.L. & Morgerson, F.P.`Temporary worker, permanent loser?' A model of stigmatization of temporary workers. Journal of Management , 2007, 33, 5-29.
13.
Britt, T.W. & Bliese, P.B.Testing the stress-buffering effects of self engagement on a military operation . Journal of Personality, 2003, 71, 245-65.
14.
Brockner, J., Spreitzer, G., Mishra, A., Hochwarter, W., Pepper, L. & Weinberg, J.Perceived control as an antidote to the negative effects of layoffs on survivors' organizational commitment and job performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 2004, 49, 76-100.
15.
Brockner, J., Tyler, T.R. & Cooper-Schneider, R.The influence of prior commitment to an institution on reactions to perceived unfairness: The higher they are, the harder they fall. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1992 , 37, 241-61.
16.
Chambel, M.J. & Castanheira, F.Different temporary work status, different behaviors in organization. Journal of Business and Psychology, 2006, 20, 351-67.
17.
CIETT (International Confederation of Private Employment Agencies).Orchestrating the evolution of private employment agencies towards a stronger society. Brussels: CIETT, 2000.
18.
CIETTThe agency work industry around the world. Main statistics. Brussels: CIETT, 2007.
19.
Cohen, A.Multiple commitments in the workplace: An integrative approach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003.
20.
Connelly, C.E. & Gallagher, D.G.Managing contingent workers: Adapting to new realities. In R.J. Burke & C.L. Cooper (Eds), Leading in turbulent times. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004a, pp. 143-64.
21.
Connelly, C.E. & Gallagher, D.G.Emerging trends in contingent work research. Journal of Management, 2004b, 30, 959-83.
22.
Connelly, C.E. & Gallagher, D.G.Independent and dependent contracting: Meaning and implications. Journal of Resource Management Review, 2006, 16, 95-106.
23.
Connelly, C.E., Gallagher, D.G. & Gilley, K.M.Organizational and client commitment among contracted employees: A replication and extension with temporary workers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2007, 70, 326-35.
24.
Davis-Blake, A. & Uzzi, B.Determinants of employment externalization: A study of temporary workers and independent contractors. Administrative Science Quarterly , 1993, 38, 195-223.
25.
Druker, J. & Stanworth, C.Mutual expectations: A study of the three-way relationship between employment agencies, their client organizations and white-collar agency temps. Industrial Relations Journal, 2004, 55, 58-75.
26.
Dunford, R.`If you want loyalty get a dog!': Loyalty, trust and the new employment contract . In S.R. Clegg, E.I. Ibarra-Colado & L. Bueno-Rodriquez (Eds), Global management, global theories and local realities. London: SAGE , 1999, pp. 68-82.
27.
Ellingson, J.E., Gruys, M.L. & Sacket, P.R.Factors related to the satisfaction and performance of temporary employees . Journal of Applied Psychology, 1998, 83, 913-21.
28.
Federal Employment Office.Biannual temporary agency work statistics (ANÜSTAT). Nürnberg: Bundesagentur für Arbeit, 2005.
29.
Fedor, D.B., Caldwell, S. & Herold, D.M.The effects of organizational changes on employee commitment: A multilevel investigation. Personnel Psychology, 2006, 58, 1-29.
30.
Feldman, D.C.Toward a new taxonomy for understanding the nature and consequences of contingent employment. Career Development International, 2006, 11, 28-47.
31.
Feldman, D.C. & Brett, J.M.Coping with new jobs: A comparative study of new hires and job changers. Academy of Management Journal, 1983, 26, 258-72.
Feldman, D.C., Doerpinghaus, H.I. & Turnley, W.H.Employee reactions to temporary jobs. Journal of Managerial Issues, 1995, 7, 127-41.
34.
Finegold, D., Levenson, A. & Van Buren, M.Access to training and its impact on temporary workers. Human Resource Management Journal, 2005, 15, 66-85.
35.
Gaertner, K.N. & Nollen, S.D.Career experience, perceptions of employment practices, and psychological commitment to the organization. Human Relations, 1989, 42, 975-91.
36.
Gakovic, A. & Tetrick, L.E.Psychological contract breach as a source of strain for employees. Journal of Business and Psychology, 2003, 18, 235-46.
37.
Gallagher, D.G. & McLean Parks, J.I pledge thee my troth . . . contingently: Commitment and the contingent work relationship. Human Resource Management Review, 2001, 11, 181-208.
38.
Gallagher, D.G. & Sverke, M.Contingent employment contracts: Are existing employment theories still relevant ? Economic and Industrial Democracy, 2005, 26, 181-203.
39.
Garhammer, M.Final report on temporary agency work in Germany. Dublin : European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2001.
40.
Garsten, C.Betwixt and between: Temporary employees as liminal subjects in flexible organizations . Organizational Studies, 1999, 20, 601-17.
41.
Gimeno, D., Benavides, F.G., Amick, B.C., Benach, J. & Martinez, J.M.Psychological factors and work related sickness absence among permanent and non-permanent employees. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 2004, 58, 870-6.
42.
Hall, D.T.Protean careers of the 21st century. Academy of Management Executive, 1996, 10, 8-16.
43.
Hall, D.T.Careers in and out of organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA : SAGE, 2002.
44.
Hall, R.Temporary agency work and HRM in Australia. Personnel Review , 2006, 35, 158-74.
45.
Houseman, S.N.Why employers use flexible staffing arrangements: Evidence from an employer survey. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 2001, 55, 149-70.
46.
Isaksson, K.A.Longitudinal study of the relationship between frequent job change and psychological well-being. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 1990, 63, 297-308.
47.
Joksimovic, L., Siegrist, J., Meyer-Hammer, M., Peter, R., Klimek, W. & Heintzen, M.Psychosocial factors and restenosis after PTCA: The role of work-related overcommitment . International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 1999, 6, 356-69.
48.
Kacmar, K.M., Carlson, D.S. & Brymer, R.A.Antecedents and consequences of organizational commitment: A comparison of two scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1999, 59, 976-94.
49.
Kallberg, A.L. & Reve, T.Contracts and commitment: Economic and sociological perspectives on employment relations. Human Relations, 1992, 45, 1103-32.
50.
Kalleberg, A.L. & Rognes, J.Employment relations in Norway: Some dimensions and correlates. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2000, 21, 315-35.
51.
Kalleberg, A.L., Reskin, B.F. & Hudson, K.Bad jobs in America: Standard and non-standard employment relations and job quality in the United States. American Sociological Review , 2000, 65, 256-78.
52.
King, R.C. & Sethi, V.The moderating effect of organizational commitment on burnout in information systems professionals. European Journal of Information Systems , 1997, 6, 86-96.
53.
Kobasa, S.C.Commitment and coping in stress resistance among lawyers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1982, 42, 707-17.
54.
Krausz, M., Brandwein, T. & Fox, S.Work attitudes and emotional responses of permanent, voluntary, and involuntary temporary-help employees: An exploratory study. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 1995, 44, 217-32.
55.
Kvasnicka, M.Does temporary agency work provide a stepping stone to regular employment? Collaborative Research Center 649, Discussion Paper31, 2005, pp. 1-39.
56.
Leong, C.S., Furnham, A. & Cooper, C.L.The moderating effect of organizational commitment on the occupational stress outcome relationship. Human Relations, 1996 , 49, 1345-63.
57.
Liden, R.C., Wayne, S.J., Kraimer, M.L. & Sparrowe, R.T. The dual commitments of contingent workers: An examination of contingent's commitment to the agency and the organization . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2003 , 24, 609-25.
58.
Louis, M.R.Surprise and sensemaking: What newcomers experience entering unfamiliar organizational settings. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1980, 25, 226-51.
59.
Mack, D.A., Nelson, D.L. & Quick, J.C.The stress of organizational change: A dynamic process model. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 1998, 47, 219-32.
60.
Marler, J., Woodard Barringer, M. & Milkovich, G.Boundaryless and traditional contingent employees: Worlds apart. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2002, 23, 425-53.
61.
Mathieu, J.E. & Zajac, D.M.A review and meta-analysis of the antecedents, correlates, and consequences of organizational commitment. Psychological Bulletin, 1990, 108, 171-94.
62.
McClurg, L.N.Organizational commitment in the temporary-help service industry. Journal of Applied Management Studies, 1999, 8, 5-26.
63.
McLean Parks, J., Kidder, D.L. & Gallagher, D.G.Fitting square pegs into round holes: Mapping the domain of contingent work arrangements onto the psychological contract . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 1998 , 19, 697-730.
64.
Meyer, J.P., Stanley, D., Herscovitch, L. & Topolnytsky, L.Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization: A meta-analysis of antecedents, correlated, and consequences . Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2002, 61, 20-52.
65.
Mohr, G.Die Erfassung psychischer Befindensbeeinträchtigungen bei Industriearbeitern [Assessment of Psychological Complaints of Industrial Workers]. Frankfurt: Lang, European University Press, Psychology, Vol. 172, Series 6, 1986.
66.
Moorman, R.H. & Harland, L.K.Temporary employees as good citizens: Factors influencing their OCB performance . Journal of Business and Psychology, 2002 , 17, 171-87.
67.
Mowday, R., Porter, L. & Steers, R.M.The measurement of organizational commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1979, 14, 224-47.
68.
Moyle, P. & Parkes, K.The effects of transition stress: A relocation study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 1999, 20, 625-46.
69.
O'Connor, B.P.SIMPLE: All-in-one programmes for exploring interactions in moderated multiple regression. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1998, 58, 833-7.
70.
Parker, S.K., Griffin, M.A., Sprigg, C.A. & Wall, T.D.Effect of temporary contracts on perceived work characteristics and job strain: A longitudinal study. Personnel Psychology, 2002, 55, 689-719.
71.
Paul, K.I. & Moser, K.Incongruence as an explanation for the negative mental health effects of unemployment: Meta-analytic evidence. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 2006, 79, 595-621.
72.
Pearce, J.L.Toward an organizational behavior of contract laborers: Their psychological involvement and effects on employee co-workers. Academy of Management Journal, 1993, 36, 1082-96.
73.
Pearlin, L.I., Lieberman, M.A., Menaghan, E.G. & Mullan, J.T.The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 1981, 22, 337-56.
74.
Pfeffer, J. & Baron, J.N.Taking the workers back out: Recent trends in the structuring of employment . In L.L. Cummings & B.M. Staw (Eds), Research in organizational behavior, 10. Greenwich: JAI Press , 1988, pp. 257-304.
75.
Pittinsky, T.L. & Shih, M.J.Knowledge nomads. Organizational commitment and workers mobility in positive perspective. American Behavioral Scientist, 2004, 46, 791-807.
76.
Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B. & Lee, J.Y.Common method biases in behavioural research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2003, 88, 879-903.
77.
Polivka, A.E. & Nardone T.On the definition of `contingent work'. Monthly Labor Review , 1989, 112, 9-16.
78.
Probst, T.M.Wedded to the job: Moderating effects of job involvement on the consequences of job insecurity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology , 2000, 5, 36-73.
79.
Purcell, J., Purcell, K. & Tailby, S.Temporary work agencies: Here today gone tomorrow? British Journal of Industrial Relations, 2004, 42, 705-25.
80.
Rogers, J.K.Just a temp: Experience and structure of alienation in temporary clerical employment. Work and Occupations, 1995, 22, 137-66.
81.
Rogers, J.K. & Henson, K.D.Hey why don't you wear a shorter skirt? Structural vulnerability and the organization of sexual harassment in temporary clerical employment. Gender & Society, 1997, 1, 215-37.
82.
Rousseau, D.M.Why workers still identify with organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 1998, 19, 217-33.
83.
Rousseau, D.M. & McLean Parks, J.M.The contracts of individuals and organizations . In L.L. Cummings & B.M. Staw (Eds), Research in organizational behavior, 15. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1993, pp. 1-43.
84.
Rudolph, H. & Schröder, E.Arbeitnehmerüberlassung: Trends und Einsatzlogik [Temporary agency work: Emerging trends and assignment patterns]. Mitteilungen aus der Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung, 1997, 30, 102-26.
85.
Sennett, R.The corrosion of character. The personal consequences of work in the new capitalism . New York: Norton, 1998.
86.
Smith, V.The fractured world of the temporary worker: Power, participation, and fragmentation in the contemporary workplace. Social Problems, 1998, 45, 411-30.
87.
Sodenkamp, D. & Schmidt, K.H.Erleben von Rollenambiguität bei Leiharbeitnehmern [The experience of role ambiguity of temporary agency workers]. Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft , 2001, 1, 32-8.
88.
Storrie, D.Temporary agency work in the European Union. Dublin: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2002.
89.
Sullivan, S.E.The changing nature of careers: A review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 1999, 25, 457-84.
90.
Taris, T.W. & Kompier, M.Challenges in longitudinal designs in occupational health psychology. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 2003 , 29, 1-4.
91.
Teo, D. & Waters, L.The role of human resource practices in reducing occupational stress and strain . International Journal of Stress Management, 2002, 9, 207-26.
92.
Terborg, J.R., Richardson, P. & Pritchard, R.D.Person-situation effects in the prediction of performance: An investigation of ability, self-esteem, and reward contingencies . Journal of Applied Psychology, 1980, 65, 574-83.
93.
TNS Emnid.Temporary agency work in Germany. A representative survey among the German population prepared for the Association of German Temporary Employment Agencies [Zeitarbeit in Deutschland. Eine Repräsentativbefragung unter der deutschen Bevölkerung für den IGZ (Interessenverband Deutscher Zeitarbeitsunternehmen e.V.)], 2007. Available online at: [ http://www.ig-zeitarbeit.de/].
94.
Van Breugel, G., Van Olffen, W. & Olie, R.Temporary liaisons: The commitment of `temps' towards their agencies. Journal of Management Studies, 2005, 42, 539-66.
95.
Virtanen, M., Kivimäki, M., Elovainio, M.Vahtera, J. & Cooper, C.L.Contingent employment, health and sickness absence. Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment and Health, 2001, 27, 365-72.
96.
Virtanen, M., Kivimäki, M., Virtanen, P., Elovainio, M. & Vahtera, J.Disparity in occupational training and career planning between contingent and permanent employees. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 2003, 12, 19-36.
97.
Von Hippel, C., Mangum, S.L., Greenberger, D.B., Henemann, R.L. & Skoglind, J.D.Temporary employment: Can organizations and employees both win? Academy of Management Executive, 1997, 11, 93-104.
98.
Wiener, Y., Muczyk, J.P. & Gable, M.Relationships between work commitments and experience of personal well-being . Psychological Reports, 1987, 60, 459-66.
99.
Yeh, Y.-J.Y., Ko, J.-J.R., Chang, Y.-S. & Chen, C.-H.V.Job stress and work attitudes between temporary and permanently employed nurses . Stress and Health, 2007, 23, 111-20.
100.
Zapf, D., Dormann, C. & Frese, M.Longitudinal studies in organizational stress research: A review of the literature with reference to methodological issues. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1996, 1, 145-69.
