The influence of religion as an important element of national contexts has been largely neglected in international management research, even though all major religions promote particular values that believers express at work. In this article, we apply the country institutional profile (Kostova, 1999) to specify cognitive, normative, and regulative elements of national religious contexts and relate them to individuals' work obligation norms. Using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) on data from 62,128 individuals in 45 countries, we find support for our hypotheses regarding positive relationships with one cognitive component (importance of God) and one normative component (behavioral aspect of religion). Our hypothesis for the negative relationship between the regulative component (state religion) and work obligation is also supported. We also propose that religious pluralism will weaken the relationships between the cognitive and normative aspects of religion and work obligations. Results provide varying support for the interactive effects of religious pluralism. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of our results and argue for the analytical importance of religion in understanding workplace behaviors.
Abeng, T.Business ethics in Islamic context: Perspective of a Muslim business leader . Business Ethics Quarterly, 1997, 7, 47-54.
2.
Ahdar, R.The idea of `religious markets'. International Journal of Law in Context, 2006, 2(1), 49-65.
3.
Bagozzi, R.P.Principles of marketing research. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994.
4.
Barro, R.J. & McCleary, R.M.Religion and economic growth across countries . American Sociological Review, 2003, 68(5), 760-81.
5.
Barro, R.J. & McCleary, R.M.Which countries have state religions?The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2005, November, 1331-70.
6.
Bell, E. & Taylor, S.`From outward bound to inner bound': The prophetic voices and discursive practices of spiritual management development. Human Relations, 2004, 57(4), 439-66.
7.
Berger, P.L.The sacred canopy. New York: Doubleday , 1967.
8.
Biggart, N.W. & Guillén, M.F.Developing difference: Social organization and the rise of the auto industries of South Korea, Taiwan, Spain, and Argentina. American Sociological Review, 1999, 64, 722-47.
9.
Bryk, A.S. & Raudenbush, S.W.Hierarchical linear models. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE, 1992.
10.
Cash, K.C. & Gray, G.R.A framework for accommodating religion and spirituality in the workplace. Academy of Management Executive, 2000, 14(3), 124-34.
11.
Cherrington, D.J.The work ethic: Working values and values that work. New York: AMACOM, 1980.
12.
Chusmir, L.H. & Koberg, C.S.Religion and attitudes toward work: A new look at an old question. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 1988, 9, 251-62.
13.
Clark, W.R.Agents and structures: Two views of preferences, two views of institutions . International Studies Quarterly, 1998, 42, 245-70.
14.
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S.G. & Aiken, L.S.Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences , 3rd edn. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003.
15.
Cornwall, M., Albrecht, S.L., Cunningham, P.H. & Pitcher, B.L.The dimensions of religiosity: A conceptual model with an empirical test. Review of Religious Research, 1986, 27(3), 266-44.
Cullen, J.B., Parboteeah, K.P. & Hoegl, M.Cross-national differences in managers' willingness to justify ethically suspect behaviors: A test of Institutional Anomie Theory. Academy of Management Journal, 2004, 47, 411-21.
18.
Davie, G.The sociology of religion. London: SAGE, 2007.
19.
DeJong, G.F., Faulkner, J.E. & Warland, R.H.Dimensions of religiosity reconsidered: Evidence from a cross-cultural study . Social Forces, 1976, 54(4), 866-89.
20.
Dodd, S.D. & Seaman, P.T.Religion and enterprise: An introductory exploration. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 1998, 23, 71-86.
Ellison, C.G. & Sherkat, D.E.Is sociology the core religion for the scientific study of religion? Social Forces, 1995, 73(4), 1255-66.
23.
Finke, R. & Stark, R.Religious economies and sacred canopies: Religious mobilization in American cities, 1906. American Sociological Review, 1988, 53, 41-9.
24.
Finke, R., Guest, A.M. & Stark, R.Mobilizing local religious markets: Religious pluralism in the Empire state, 1855 to 1865. American Sociological Review, 1996, 61, 203-18.
25.
Furnham, A.The Protestant work ethic in Barbados. Journal of Social Psychology , 1991, 131, 29-43.
26.
Furnham, A., Bond, M., Heaven, P., Hilton, D., Lovel, T., Masters, J., Payne, M., Rajamanickam, R., Stacey, B. & Van Daalan, H.A comparison of Protestant work ethic beliefs in thirteen nations. Journal of Social Psychology, 1993, 133(2), 185-97.
27.
Gould, S.J.The Buddhist perspective on business ethics: Experiential exercises for exploration and practice. Journal of Business Ethics, 1995, 14, 63-70.
28.
Harpaz, I.Cross-national comparisons of religious conviction and the meaning of work . Cross-cultural Research, 1998, 32, 143-70.
29.
Hofstede, G.Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2001.
30.
Hofstede, G. & Bond, M.H.The Confucian connection: From cultural roots to economic growth. Organization Dynamics, 1988, 5-21.
31.
House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W. & Gupta, V. (Eds). Culture, leadership and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2004.
32.
Hrebiniak, L.G. & Alutto, J.A.Personal and role-related factors in the development of organizational commitment . Administrative Science Quarterly, 1972, 17, 555-73.
33.
Husted, B.W.Wealth, culture and corruption. Journal of International Business Studies, 1999, 30, 339-60.
34.
Iannaccone, L.R.Introduction to the economics of religion. Journal of Economic Literature, 1998, 36, 1465-96.
35.
Iannaccone, L.R., Finke, R. & Stark, R.Deregulating religion: The economics of church and state. Economic Inquiry, 1997, 35, 350-64.
36.
Ibrahim, N.A., Rue, L.W., McDougall, P.P. & Greene, G.R.Characteristics and practices of `Christian-based' companies. Journal of Business Ethics, 1991, 10, 123-32.
37.
Inglehart, R., Basañez, M. & Moreno, A.Human values and beliefs: A cross-cultural sourcebook. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998.
38.
Ingram, P. & Clay, K.The choice-within-constraints new institutionalism and implications for sociology . Annual Review of Sociology, 2000, 26, 525-46.
39.
Kelley, J. & DeGraaf, N.D.National context, parental socialization, and religious belief: Results from 15 nations. American Sociological Review, 1997, 62, 639-59.
40.
King, J.E. & Crowther, M.R.The measurement of religiosity and spirituality . Journal of Organizational Change Management, 2004, 17(1), 83-101.
41.
Kostova, T.Country institutional profile: Concept and measurement. Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings, 1997, 180-9.
42.
Kostova, T.Transnational transfer of strategic organizational practices: A contextual perspective. Academy of Management Review, 1999, 24(2), 308-24.
43.
Kotabe, M.Using Euromonitor database in international marketing research. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 2002, 30, 172-5.
44.
Kriger, M. & Seng, Y.Leadership with inner meaning: A contingency theory of leadership based on worldviews of five religions. Leadership Quarterly, 2005, 16, 771-806.
45.
Lund Dean, K., Fornaciari, C.J. & McGee, J.J.Research in spirituality, religion, and work . Journal of Organizational Change Management, 2003, 16, 378-95.
46.
McClelland, D.C.The achieving society. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1961.
47.
Meyer, A. & Rowan, B.Institutionalized organizations: Formal structures as myth and ceremony. In W.W. Powell & P.J. DiMaggio (Eds), The new institutionalism in organizational analysis. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 41-62.
48.
Montgomery, J.D.A formalization and test of the religious economies model. American Sociological Review, 2003, 68(5), 782-809.
49.
MOW - International Research Team.The meaning of work: An international view. London: Academic Press, 1987.
50.
Mowday, R.T. & Sutton, R.I.Organization behavior: Linking individuals and groups to organizational contexts . Annual Review of Psychology, 1993, 44, 195-229.
51.
Myers, S.M.The impact of religious involvement on migration. Social Forces , 2000, 79(2), 755-83.
52.
Nanayakkara, S.Ethics of material progress: The Buddhist attitude. Colombo : The World Fellowship of Buddhist Dhammaduta Activities Committee, 1992.
53.
Nee, V. & Ingram, P.Embeddedness and beyond: Institutions, exchange, and social structure. In M.C. Brinton & V. Nee (Eds), The new institutionalism in sociology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1998, pp. 19-45.
54.
Niles, F.S.Toward a cross-cultural understanding of work-related beliefs. Human Relations, 1999, 52, 855-67.
55.
North, C.M. & Gwin, C.R.Religious freedom and the unintended consequences of state religion. Southern Economic Journal, 2004, 71(1), 103-17.
56.
North, D.Institutions, institutional change and economic performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
57.
Parboteeah, K.P. & Cullen, J.B.Social institutions and work centrality: Explorations beyond national culture . Organization Science, 2003, 14, 137-48.
58.
Parboteeah, K.P., Cullen, J.B. & Lim, L.Formal voluntary behaviors: A cross-national model. Journal of World Business, 2004, 39, 431-41.
59.
Parboteeah, K.P., Hoegl, M. & Cullen, J.B.Ethics and religion: An empirical test of a multidimensional model. Journal of Business Ethics, 2008a, 80(2), 387-98.
60.
Parboteeah, K.P., Hoegl, M. & Cullen, J.B.Managers' gender role attitudes: A country institutional profile approach . Journal of International Business Studies, 2008b, 39, 795-813.
61.
Preston, R.The future of Christian ethics. London: SCM, 1987.
62.
Ruiter, S. & DeGraaf, N.D.National context, religiosity and volunteering: Results from 53 countries . American Sociological Review, 2006, 71(2), 191-210.
63.
Schwartz, S.H. & Sagie, G.Values consensus and importance: A cross-national study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 2000, 4, 465-97.
64.
Scott, R.Institutions and organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1995.
65.
Sherkat, D.E. & Ellison, C.G.Recent developments and current controversies in the sociology of religion . Annual Review of Sociology, 1999, 25, 363-94.
66.
Singh, J.Measurement issues in cross-national research. Journal of International Business Studies, 1995, 25, 597-619.
67.
Stark, R. & Bainbridge, W.S.The future of religion. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
68.
Studenmund, A.H.Using econometrics: A practical guide. New York: Harper-Collins, 1992.
69.
Tittle, C.R. & Welch, M.R.Religiosity and deviance: Toward a contingency theory of constraining effects . Social Forces, 1983, 61(3), 653-82.
Voas, D., Crockett, A. & Olson, D.V.A.Religious pluralism and participation: Why previous research is wrong. American Sociological Review, 2002, 67, 212-30.
72.
Weaver, G.R. & Agle, B.R.Religiosity and ethical behavior in organizations: A symbolic interactionist perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 2002, 27, 77-97.
73.
Weber, M.The protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism, trans. T. Parsons. New York: Scribner's, 1930.
74.
Williamson, O.Comparative economic organization: The analysis of discrete structural alternatives . Administrative Science Quarterly, 1991, 36, 269-96.
75.
World Bank.World development indicators. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2003 .
76.
World Values Study Group.World Values Surveys and European Values Surveys, 1981-1984 and 1990-1993, and 1995-1997 (Computer file). Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research, 2000.
77.
Yousef, D.A.Organizational commitment as a mediator of the relationship between Islamic work ethic and attitudes toward organizational change. Human Relations, 2000, 53, 513-37.
78.
Yousef, D.A.Islamic work ethic - A moderator between organizational commitment and job satisfaction in a cross-cultural context. Personnel Review , 2001, 30, 152-64.
