To examine maternity leave as a gendered conflict management process, we analyzed a sample of interviews (from a larger data set of 102 interviews) with 26 women who reported feeling discouraged (n = 15) or encouraged (n = 11) about their employment status and career opportunities at the times of their leaves. Whereas these two groups of women converged on perceptions of a) incompatible (individual and organizational) goals and b) increased stress, they diverged on perceptions of a) interdependence, and b) use of negotiation strategies. Although this study is exploratory, findings indicate the need for additional research on perspective taking and influence tactics as ways of handling potential gendered conflict interactions for female workers and their bosses.
Brett, J.M. , Shapiro, D.L. & Lytle, A.L.Breaking the bonds of reciprocity in negotiation . Academy of Management Journal, 1998, 41, 410—24 .
7.
Burrell, G. & Hearn, J.The sexuality of organization. In J. Hearn , D.L. Sheppard , P. Tancred-Sheriff & G. Burrell (Eds), The sexuality of organization. London: Sage , 1989, pp. 1—28.
8.
Buzzanell, P.M. & Goldzwig, S.R.Linear and nonlinear career models: Metaphors, paradigms, and ideologies . Management Communication Quarterly , 1991, 4, 466—505 .
9.
Buzzanell, P.M. & Lucas, K.Gendered stories of career: Unfolding discourses of time, space, and identity . In B.J. Dow & J.T. Wood (Eds), The Sage handbook on gender and communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage , 2006, pp. 161—78.
10.
Cai, D.A. & Fink, E.L.Conflict style differences between individualists and collectivists . Communication Monographs, 2002, 69, 67—87 .
11.
Careerplanning. Could pregnancy affect your job? Available online at: [http:// careerplanning.about.com/library/weekly/aa040598.htm], accessed 28 July 2006.
12.
Carnevale, P.J. & Isen, A.M.The influence of positive affect and visual access on the discovery of integrative solutions in bilateral negotiation . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1986, 37, 1—13 .
13.
Chaker, A.M.Luring moms back to work . Wall Street Journal, 30 December 2003, pp. D1 , D2 .
14.
Charmaz, K.Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructivist methods. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds), Handbook of qualitative research, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage , 2000, pp. 509—36.
15.
Clark, R. , Hyde, J.S. , Essex, M.J. & Klein, M.H.Length of maternity leave and quality of mother—infant interactions . Child Development, 1997, 68, 364—83 .
16.
Deutsch, M.The resolution of conflict: Constructive and destructive processes. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press , 1973.
17.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978. Available online at: [http://www.eeoc.gov/abouteeoc/35th/thelaw/pregnancy_ discrimination-1978.html], accessed 28 July 2006.
18.
Fairhurst, G.T.The leader—member exchange patterns of women leaders in industry: A discourse analysis . Communication Monographs, 1993, 60, 321—51 .
19.
Family and Medical Leave Act, 5 U.S.C. § 630 (1993).
20.
Filley, A.C. & House, R.J.Managerial process and organizational behavior. Glenview, IL: Scott-Foresman , 1969.
21.
Fisher, R. , Ury, W. & Patton, B.Getting to yes, 2nd edn. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin , 1991.
22.
Fondas, N.The biological clock confronts complex organizations: Women's ambivalence about work and implications for feminist management research . Journal of Management Inquiry, 1995, 4, 57—65 .
23.
Friedman, R. , Anderson, C. , Brett, J. , Olekalns, M. , Goates, N. & Lisco, C.C.The positive and negative effects of anger on dispute resolution: Evidence from electronically mediated disputes . Journal of Applied Psychology, 2004, 89, 369—76 .
24.
Gabarro, J. & Kotter, J.Managing your boss . Harvard Business Review, 1993, 58, 92—100 .
25.
Gerstel, N. & McGonagle, K.Job leaves and the limits of the Family and Medical Leave Act: The effects of gender, race, and family . Work & Occupations, 1999, 26, 510—34 .
Gottlieb, B.H. , Kelloway, E.K. & Barham, E.Flexible work arrangements: Managing the work—family boundary. Chichester: Wiley , 1998.
28.
Gray, B.The gender-based foundations of negotiation theory. In R.J. Lewicki , B.H. Sheppard & R. Bies (Eds), Research on negotiation in organizations, vol. 4. Greenwich, CT: JAI , 1994, pp. 3—36.
29.
Greenhaus, J.H. & Beutell, N.J.Sources of conflict between work and family roles . Academy of Management Review, 1985, 10, 76—88 .
30.
Gueutal, H.G. & Taylor, E.M.Employee pregnancy: The impact on organizations, pregnant employees and co-workers . Journal of Business and Psychology, 1991 , 5, 459—76 .
31.
Halpern, J.J. & Parks, J.M.Vive la difference: Differences between males and females in process and outcomes in a low-conflict negotiation . International Journal of Conflict Management, 1996, 7, 45—70 .
32.
Heen, S.Defining gender differences: Is the proof in the process . Negotiation Journal, 1996, 12, 9—17 .
33.
HR Certification. Training and certification programs for professions in legal issues that require strict compliance. Available online at: [http://www.hrcertification.com/FMLA/ aboutFMLAcert.asp], accessed 28 July 2006.
34.
HRnext. The Rx for your #1 HR headache — FMLA: Family and Maternity Leave Act compliance guide. Available online at: [http://www.blr.com/product.cfm?product= 31500900&source=wbp&effort=402&funcode=WW13], accessed 28 July 2006.
35.
Hyde, J.S. , Klein, M.H. , Essex, M.J. & Clark, R.Maternity leave and women's mental health . Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1995, 19, 257—85 .
36.
Jamieson, K.H.Beyond the double bind: Women and leadership. New York : Oxford University Press , 1995.
37.
Jenero, K.A. & Dabertin, M.T.Validity of FMLA regulatory notice requirements for employers challenged in federal courts . Employee Relations Law Journal, 1997, 23, 115—28 .
38.
Kelly, E. & Dobbin, F.Civil rights law and work: Sex discrimination and the rise of maternity leave policies . American Journal of Sociology, 1999 , 105, 455—92 .
39.
Keys, B. & Case, T.How to become an influential manager . Academy of Management Executive, 1990, 4, 38—50 .
40.
Kim, M.S. & Leung, T.A multicultural view of conflict management styles: Review and critical synthesis . In M. Roloff (Ed.), Communication yearbook 23. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage , 2000, pp. 227—69.
41.
Kipnis, D. , Schmidt, S. & Wilkinson, I.Intraorganizational influence tactics: Explorations in getting one's way . Journal of Applied Psychology, 1980, 65, 440—52 .
42.
Kirby, E.L.Should I do as you say, or do as you do? Mixed messages about work and family . Electronic Journal of Communication, 2000 , 10(3/4). Available online at: [http://www.cios.org/www./ejcrec2.htm ].
43.
Kirby, E. , Golden, A. , Medved, C. , Jorgenson, J. & Buzzanell, P.M.An organizational communication challenge to the discourse of work and family research: From problematics to empowerment . In P. Kalbfleisch (Ed.), Communication yearbook 27. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates , 2003, pp. 1—44.
44.
Kolb, D.M. & Coolidge, G.Her place at the table. In J.Z. Rubin & J.W. Breslin (Eds), Negotiation theory and practice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Law Program on Negotiation , 1991, pp. 261—77.
Lindlof, T.R.Qualitative communication research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage , 1995.
47.
Locke, K.Grounded theory in management research. London: Sage , 2001.
48.
Lyness, K.S. , Thompson, C.A. , Francesco, A.M. & Judiesch, M.K.Work and pregnancy: Individual and organizational factors influencing organizational commitment, timing of maternity leave, and return to work . Sex Roles, 1999, 41, 485—508 .
Marshall, J.Re-visioning career concepts: A feminist invitation. In M.B. Arthur , D.T. Hall & B.S. Lawrence (Eds), Handbook of career theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 1989, pp. 275—91.
51.
Martin, J.Deconstructing organizational taboos: The suppression of gender conflict in organizations . Organization Science, 1990, 1, 339—57 .
52.
Martin, J.The suppression of gender conflict in organizations. In D.M. Kolb & J.M. Bartunek (Eds), Hidden conflict in organizations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage , 1992, pp. 165—86.
53.
Marzollo, J.Your maternity leave: How to leave work, have a baby, and go back to work without getting lost, trapped, or sandbagged along the way. New York: Poseidon Press , 1989.
54.
McGovern, P. , Dowd, B. , Gjerdingen, D. , Moscovice, I. , Kochevar, L. & Lohman, W.Time off work and the postpartum health of employed women . Medical Care, 1997, 35, 507—21 .
55.
McKay, D.R.Just found out you're pregnant? Know your rights at work. Career Planning . Available online at: [http://careerplanning.about.com/library/weekly/aa040598.htm ], accessed 28 July 2006.
56.
Miller, K. , Ellis, B. , Zook, E. & Lyles, J.An integrated model of communication, stress, and burnout in the workplace . Communication Research, 1990, 17, 300—26 .
57.
Miller, V.D. , Jablin, F.M. , Casey, M.K. , Lamphear-Van Horn, M. & Ethington, C. The maternity leave as a role negotiation process . Journal of Managerial Issues, 1996 , 8, 286—309 .
58.
Mock, C. & Bruno, A.The expectant executive and the endangered promotion . Harvard Business Review, 1994, 72(1), 16—25 .
59.
Neale, M. & Bazerman, M.H.The role of perspective-taking ability in negotiating under different forms of arbitration . Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 1983, 36, 378—88 .
60.
Neale, M. & Bazerman, M.H.Cognition and rationality in organization. New York: Free Press , 1991.
61.
Neu, J. , Graham, J. & Gilly, M.C.The influence of gender on behaviors and outcomes in a retail buyer—seller negotiation simulation . Journal of Retailing, 1988, 64, 427—51 .
62.
Nicotera, A.M. & Dorsey, L.K.Individual and interactive processes in organizational conflict. In J.G. Oetzel & S. Ting-Toomey (Eds), The Sage handbook of conflict communication: Integrating theory, research, and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage , 2006,pp.293-326.
63.
Pillutla, M.M. & Murnighan, J.K. Unfairness , anger , and spite : Emotional rejections of ultimatum offers . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1996, 68, 208—24 .
64.
Portello, J. & Long, B.Gender role orientation, ethical and interpersonal conflicts, and conflict handling styles of female managers . Sex Roles, 1994, 31, 683—701 .
Pruitt, D.G.Negotiation behavior. New York: Academic Press , 1981.
67.
Pruitt, D.G. & Carnevale, P.J.Negotiation in social conflict. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole , 1993.
68.
Pruitt, D.G. & Lewis, S.A.Development of integrative solutions in bilateral negotiation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 31, 621—33 .
69.
Pruitt, D.G. & Rubin, J.Z.Social conflict: Escalation, stalemate and settlement. New York: Random House , 1986.
70.
Putnam, L.L. Bargaining.In International encyclopedia of communication, vol. 1. Amherst , PA: Oxford University Press , 1989, pp. 176—8.
71.
Putnam, L.L.Definitions and approaches to conflict and communication. In J.G. Oetzel & S. Ting-Toomey (Eds), The Sage handbook of conflict communication: Integrating theory, research, and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage , 2006, pp. 1—32.
72.
Putnam, L.L. & Jones, T.S.Reciprocity in negotiations: An analysis of bargaining interaction . Communication Monographs, 1982, 49, 171—91 .
73.
Putnam, L.L. & Kolb, D.M.Rethinking negotiation: Feminist views of communication and exchange. In P.M. Buzzanell (Ed.), Rethinking organizational and managerial communication from feminist perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage , 2000, pp. 76—104.
74.
Putnam, L.L. & Poole, M.S.Conflict and negotiation. In F.M. Jablin , L.L. Putnam , K.H. Roberts & L.W. Porter (Eds), Handbook of organizational communication: An interdisciplinary perspective . Newbury Park, CA: Sage , 1987, pp. 549—99.
Ray, E.Supportive relationships and occupational stress in the workplace. In T. Albrecht & M. Adelman (Eds), Communicating social support. Newbury Park, CA: Sage , 1987, pp. 172—91.
77.
Schwartz, F.N.Management women and the new facts of life . Harvard Business Review, 1989, 67(1), 65—76 .
78.
Schwartz, F.N.Women as a business imperative . Harvard Business Review, 1992, 70(2), 105—13 .
79.
Shellenbarger, S.Employees, managers need to plan ahead for maternity leaves . Wall Street Journal, 11 June 1997 , p. B1 .
80.
Shellenbarger, S.Recent suits make pregnancy issues workplace priorities . Wall Street Journal, 14 January 1998, p. B1 .
81.
Shellenbarger, S.A downside of taking family leave: Getting fired while you're gone . Wall Street Journal, 23 January 2003, p. D1 .
82.
Shellenbarger, S.Baby blues: The dangers of the trend toward shorter maternity leaves . Wall Street Journal, 20 May 2004, p. D1 .
83.
Sillars, A.L.Attributions and communication in roommate conflicts . Communication Monographs, 1980, 47, 180—200 .
84.
Sillars, A.L. , Coletti, S.F. , Parry, D. & Rogers, M.A.Coding verbal conflict tactics: Nonverbal and perceptual correlates of the (avoidance-distributive-integrative) distinction . Human Communication Research, 1982, 9, 83—95 .
85.
Singhania, L.A woman's role in corporate America: Ambitious female college graduates want one thing out of their jobs, and a decade later it all changes . The Providence Journal Co. Available online at: [ http://www.projo.com/projojobs/content/projo_20060710_pjjobs10__.44878a71.html ], accessed 27 July 2006.
86.
Sorenson, P.S. , Hawkins, K. & Sorenson, R.L.Gender, psychological type and conflict style preference . Management Communication Quarterly, 1995, 9, 115—26 .
87.
Stevens, C.K. , Bavetta, A.O. & Gist, M.E.Gender differences in the acquisition of salary negotiation skills: The role of goals, self-efficacy, and perceived control . Journal of Applied Psychology, 1993, 78, 723—35 .
88.
Taniguchi, H.The timing of childbearing and women's wages . Journal of Marriage and the Family, 1999, 61, 1008—19 .
89.
Thomas, K.W.Conflict and conflict management. In M. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology . Chicago, IL: Rand McNally , 1976, pp.889-935.
90.
Ting-Toomey, S.G.Toward a theory of conflict and culture. In W.B. Gudykunst , L.P. Stewart & S.G. Ting-Toomey (Eds), Communication, culture, and organizational processes. Beverly Hills, CA : Sage , 1985, pp. 71—86.
91.
Ting-Toomey, S.G.Intercultural conflict management: A mindful approach. In S.G. Ting-Toomey, Communicating across cultures. New York : Guilford , 1999.
92.
Trethewey, A.Revisioning control: A feminist critique of disciplined bodies. In P.M. Buzzanell (Ed.), Rethinking organizational and managerial communication from feminist perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage , 2000, pp. 107—27.
93.
Unowsky, K.G. TheFMLA at five years: The courts struggle to define the parameters . Employee Relations Law Journal, 1998, 24(2), 5—34 .
94.
Upton, R.L. & Han, S.S. Maternity and its discontents : ` Getting the body back' after pregnancy . Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 2003 , 32, 670—92 .
95.
US Department of Labor.Bureau of Labor Statistics , 2004. Available online at: [http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2004/apr/wk3/art04.htm ], accessed 28 July 2006.
96.
US Department of Labor.Bureau of Labor Statistics , 2006a. Available online at: [http://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.t06.htm ], accessed 28 July 2006.
97.
US Department of Labor.Compliance Assistance-Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), 2006b. Available online at: [http://www.dol.gov/esa/whd/fmla/], accessed 28 July 2006.
98.
Walton, R.E. & McKersie, R.B.A behavioral theory of labor negotiations: An analysis of a social interaction system. New York: McGraw Hill , 1965.
99.
Weisberg, A.C. & Buckler, C.A.Everything a working mother needs to know about pregnancy rights, maternity leave, and making her career work for her. New York: Doubleday , 1994.
