Social structures,agent personality and workers' mental health:A longitudinal analysis of the specific role of occupation and of workplace constraints-resources on psychological distress in the Canadian workforce
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online July, 2006
Social structures,agent personality and workers' mental health:A longitudinal analysis of the specific role of occupation and of workplace constraints-resources on psychological distress in the Canadian workforce
This study examines the role of occupations and work conditions in psychological distress with a model of social action in which psychological distress results from stress created by the constraintsresources of structures of daily life, macrosocial structures, and agent personality. Using longitudinal data from 6611 workers nested in 471 occupations, multilevel regression analyses confirm the model. Occupations account for 1.6 percent of the variation. Social support and job insecurity contribute to distress, but greater decision authority increases distress. Skill utilization follows a J curve. Family structure, social network outside the workplace, and the personality of the agent do not moderate the influence of the workplace, with the sole exception of strained marital relations. The findings support the hypothesis that occupations and certain workplace constraintsresources contribute independently to psychological distress. Researchers in workplace mental health must expand their theoretical perspectives to avoid erroneous conclusions about the specific role of the workplace.
Alexander, J.C.Action and its environments. In J.C. Alexander , B. Giesen , R. Münch & N.J. Smelser (Eds), The micro–macro link. Berkeley: University of California , 1987, pp. 289-318.
2.
Almeida, D.M. & Kessler, R.C.Everyday stressors and gender differences in daily distress . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1998, 75, 670-680 .
3.
Andrea, H. , Bultmann, U. , Beurskens, A.J. , Swaen, G.M. , van Schayck, C.P. & Kant, I.J.Anxiety and depression in the working population using the HAD Scale Psychometrics, prevalence and relationships with psychosocial work characteristics . Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 2004, 39, 637-646 .
4.
Antonovsky, A.G.Unraveling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass , 1987.
5.
Archer, M.S.Realist social theory. The morphogenetic approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 1995.
6.
Baldwin, P.J. , Dodd, M. & Rennie, J.S.Young dentists' work, wealth, health and happiness . British Dental Journal, 1999, 186, 30-36 .
7.
Ballard, T.J. , Romito, P. , Lauria, L. , Vigiliano, V. , Caldora, M. , Mazzanti, C. & Verdecchia, A.Self perceived health and mental health among women flight attendants . Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 2006, 63, 33-38 .
8.
Booth, N.J. & Lloyd, K.Stress in farmers . International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 2000, 46, 67-73 .
9.
Bourbonnais, R. , Brisson, C. , Malenfabt, R. & Vézina, M.Health care restructuring, work environment, and health of nurses . American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 2005, 47, 54-64 .
10.
Bourbonnais, R. , Comeau, M. & Vezina, M.Job strain and evolution of mental health among nurses . Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1999, 4, 95-107 .
11.
Campbell, C.The myth of social action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 1996.
12.
Carmines, G. & Zeller, R.A.Reliability and validity assessment (Quantitative applications in the social sciences, 17). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage , 1979.
13.
Challenor, J. & Wright, D.Aggression in boat builders: A search for altered mood states in boat builders exposed to styrene . Occupational Medicine, 2000, 50, 185-192 .
14.
D'Auria, D.Stress and stress related illness. In D. Brume , G. Gerhardsson , G.W. Crockford & D. D’Auria (Eds),The workplace. Volume 1: Fundamentals of health, safety and welfare. Geneva: International Occupational Safety and Health Information Center/International Labour Office/Scandinavian Science Publishers (Oslo) , 1997, pp. 954-960.
15.
de Jonge, J. , Marike, J. , Mulder, G.P. & Nijhuis, F.F.J.N.The incorporation of different demand concept in the job demand-control model: Effects on health care professionals . Social Science & Medicine, 1999, 48, 1149-1160 .
16.
de Jonge, J. , Reuvers, M.M.E.N. , Houtman, I.L.D. & Kompier, M.A.J.Linear and nonlinear relations between psychosocial job characteristics, subjective outcomes, and sickness absence: Baseline results from SMASH. Study on musculoskeletal disorders, absenteeism, stress, and health . Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2000, 5, 256-268 .
17.
Dohrenwend, B.P. , Shrout, P.E. , Egri, G. & Mendelsohn, F.S.Nonspecific psychological distress and other dimensions of psychopathology. Measures for use in the general population . Archive of General Psychiatry, 1980, 37, 1229-1236 .
18.
Feldt, T. , Kinnunen, U. & Mauno, S.A mediational model of sense of coherence in the work context: A one-year follow-up study . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2000, 21(4), 461-476 .
19.
Foucault, M.Histoire de la sexualité 1. La volonté de savoir. Paris: Gallimard , 1976.
20.
Fuhrer, R. , Stansfeld, S.A. , Chemali, J. & Shipley, M.J. Gender , social relations and mental health: Prospective findings from an occupational cohort (Whitehall study II) . Social Science & Medicine, 1999, 48, 77-87 .
21.
Giddens, A.La constitution de la société. Paris: PUF , 1987.
22.
Goldstein, H.Multilevel statistical models. London: Edward Arnold; New York: Halstead Press , 1995.
23.
Grzywacz, J.G . Work-family spillover and health during midlife: Is managing conflict everything?American Journal of Health Promotion, 2000, 14, 236-243 .
24.
Hemingway, H. , Nicholson, A. , Roberts, R. & Marmot, M.The impact of socioeconomic status on health functioning as assessed by the SF-36 questionnaire: The Whitehall II study . American Journal of Public Health, 1997, 87, 1484-1489 .
25.
International Labour Office (ILO) . Mental health in the workplace. Geneva: International Labour Organization , 2000.
26.
Julien, D. , Mergler, D. , Baldwin, M. , Sassine, M.-P. , Cormier, N.Chartrand, E. & Bélanger, S.Beyond the workplace: An exploratory study of the impact of neurotoxic workplace exposure on marital relations . American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 2000, 37, 316-323 .
Karasek, R.A.Job content questionnaire and user's guide. Lowell, MA: Department of Work Environment, University of Massachusetts, Lowell , 1985.
29.
Karasek, R.A. & Theorell, T.Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of the working life. New York: Basic Books , 1990.
30.
Karasek, R.A. , Brisson, C. , Kawakami, N. , Houtman, I. , Bongers, P. & Amick, B.The job content questionnaire (JCQ): An instrument for internationally comparative assessments of psychosocial job characteristics . Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1998, 3, 322-355 .
31.
Kash, K.M. , Holland, J.C. , Breitbart, W. , Berenson, S. , Doughtery, J. , Ouellette-Kobasa, S. & Lesko, L.Stress and burnout in oncology . Oncology, 2000, 14, 1621-1633 .
32.
MacDonald, L.A. , Karasek, R.A. , Punnett, L. & Scharf, T.Covariation between workplace physical and psychosocial stressors: Evidence and implications for occupational health research and prevention . Ergonomics, 2001, 44, 696-718 .
33.
Marchand, A. , Demers, A. & Durand, P.Do occupation and work conditions really matter? A longitudinal analysis of psychological distress experiences among Canadian workers . Sociology of Health and Illness, 2005a, 27, 602-627 .
34.
Marchand, A. , Demers, A. & Durand, P.Does work really cause distress? The contribution of occupational structure and work organization to the experience of psychological distress . Social Science & Medicine, 2005c, 60, 1-14 .
35.
Marchand, A. , Demers, A. , Durand, P. & Simard, M.The moderating effect of alcohol intake on the relationship between work strains and psychological distress . Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 2003, 64, 419-427 .
36.
Marchand, A. , Durand, P. & Demers, A.Work and mental health: The experience of the Quebec workforce between 1987 and 1998 . Work, 2005b, 25, 135-142 .
37.
Mausner-Dorsch, H. & Eaton, W.W.Psychosocial work environment and depression: Epidemiologic assessment of the demand-control model . American Journal of Public Health, 2000, 90, 1765-1770 .
38.
McDonough, P.Job insecurity and health . International Journal of Health Services, 2000, 30, 453-476 .
39.
McDowell, I. & Newell, C.Measuring health: A guide to rating scales and questionnaires, 2nd edn.Oxford University Press: New York , 1996.
40.
Mirowsky, J. & Ross, C.E.Well-being across the life course. In A.V. Horwitz & T.L. Scheid (Eds), A handbook for the study of mental health: Social contexts, theories, and systems. New York: Cambridge University Press , 1999, pp. 328-347.
41.
Muntaner, C. , Li, Y. , Xue, X. , O'Campo, P. , Chung, H. & Eaton, W.W.Work organization, area labor-market characteristics, and depression among U.S. nursing home workers: A cross-classified multilevel analysis . International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 2004, 10, 392-400 .
42.
Niedhammer, I. , Goldberg, M. , Leclerc, A. , Bugel, I. & David, S.Psychosocial factors at work and subsequent depressive symptoms in the Gazel cohort . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health, 1998, 24, 197-205 .
43.
Parker, D.A. , Parker, E.S. , Harford, T.C. & Farmer, G.C.Alcohol use and depression symptoms among employed men and women . American Journal of Public Health, 1987, 77, 704-707 .
44.
Pearlin, L.I.Stress and mental health: A conceptual overview. In A.V. Horwitz & T.L. Scheid (Eds), A handbook for the study of mental health: Social contexts, theories, and systems. New York: Cambridge University Press , 1999, pp. 161-175.
45.
Pearlin, L.I. & Schooler, C.The structure of coping . Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 1978, 19, 2-21 .
46.
Pugliesi, K.The consequences of emotional labor: Effects on work stress, job satisfaction, and well-being . Motivation & Emotion, 1999, 23, 125-154 .
47.
Rasbash, J. , Brown, W. , Goldstein, H. , Yang, M. , Plewis, I. , Healey, M. , Woodhouse, G. , Draper, I. , Langford, I. & Lewis, T.A user's guide to MlwiN. Version 2.1a. London: Multilevel Models Project, Institute of Education, University of London , 2000.
48.
Rosenberg, M.Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books , 1979.
49.
Ross, C.E. , Mirowsky, J. & Goldsteen, K.The impact of the family on health: The decade in review . Journal of Marriage and Family, 1990, 52, 1059-1078 .
50.
Sanne, B. , Mykletun, A. , Dahl, A.A. , Moen, B.E. & Tell, G.S.Occupational differences in levels of anxiety and depression: The Hordaland health study . Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 2003, 45, 628-638 .
51.
Schafer, J.L.Analysis of incomplete multivariate data. London: Chapman & Hall , 1997.
52.
Shirom, A. , Westman, M. & Melamed, S.The effects of pay systems on blue-collar employees’ emotional distress: The mediating effects of objective and subjective work monotony . Human Relations, 1999, 52, 1077-1097 .
53.
Siegrist, J.Adverse health effects of high-effort/low-reward conditions . Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1996, 1, 27-41 .
54.
Smelser, N.J.Problematics of sociology. The George Simmel lecture 1995. Berkeley: University of California Press , 1997.
55.
Snijders, T.A.B. & Bosker, J.R.Multilevel analysis. An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modelling. London: Sage , 1999.
56.
Söderfeldt, B. , Söderfeldt, M. , Jones, K. , O'Campo, P. , Muntaner, C. , Ohlson, C.-G. & Warg, L.-E.Does organization matter? A multilevel analysis of the demand-control model applied to human services . Social Science & Medicine, 1997, 44, 527-534 .
57.
Spurgeon, A. , Harrington, J.M. & Cooper, C.L.Health and safety problems associated with long working hours: A review of the current position . Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 1997, 54, 367-375 .
58.
Stansfeld, S.Work, personality and mental health . British Journal of Psychiatry, 2002, 181, 96-98 .
59.
Stansfeld, S.A. , Fuhrer, R. , Shipley, M.J. & Marmot, M.G.Work characteristics predict psychiatric disorder: Prospective results from the Whitehall II study . Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 1999, 56, 302-307 .
Statistique Canada . Programme d'enquêtes sur la santé de la population. Enquête nationale sur la santé de la population Cycle 4 (2000-2001), volet ménages. Documentation longitudinale. Ottawa: Statistique Canada, Section ENSP, division de la statistique de la santé , 2002.
62.
Swaen, G.M. , Bultmann, U. , Kant, I. & van Amelsvoort, L.G.Effects of job insecurity from a workplace closure threat on fatigue and psychological distress . Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 2004, 46, 443-439 .
63.
Thoits, P.A.Sociological approaches to mental illness. In A.V. Horwitz & T.L. Scheid (Eds), A handbook for the study of mental health: Social contexts, theories, and systems. New York: Cambridge University Press , 1999, pp. 121-138.
64.
Turner, R.J. , Wheaton, B. & Lloyd, D.A.The epidemiology of social stress . American Sociological Review, 1995, 60, 104-125 .
65.
Van der Doef, M. & Maes, S.The job demand-control (-support) model and psychological well-being: A review of 20 years of empirical research . Work & Stress, 1999, 13, 87-114 .
66.
Van der Doef, M. , Maes, S. & Diekstra, R.An examination of the job demand-controlsupport model with various occupational strain indicators . Anxiety, Stress & Coping: an International Journal, 2000, 13, 165-185 .
67.
van der Hulst, M.Long hours and health . Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health, 2003, 29, 171-188 .
68.
Van der Leeden, R.Multilevel analysis of repeated measures data . Quality & Quantity, 1998, 32, 15-29 .
69.
van Vegchel, N. , de Jonge, J. , Bosma, H. & Schaufeli, W.Reviewing the effort-reward imbalance model: Drawing up the balance of 45 empirical studies . Social Science & Medicine, 2005, 60, 1117-1131 .
70.
Vermeulen, M. & Mustard, C.Gender differences in job strain, social support at work, and psychological distress . Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2000, 5, 428-440 .
71.
Virtanen, P. , Vahtera, J. , Kivimaki, M. , Pentti, J. & Ferrie, J.Employment security and health . Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 2002, 56, 569-574 .
72.
Voydanoff, P. & Donnelly, B.W.The intersection of time in activities and perceived unfairness in relation to psychological distress and marital quality . Journal of Marriage & the Family, 1999a, 61, 739-751 .
73.
Voydanoff, P. & Donnelly, B.W.Multiple roles and psychological distress: The intersection of the paid worker, spouse, and parent roles with the role of the adult child . Journal of Marriage & the Family, 1999b, 61, 725-738 .
74.
Wang, J.Work stress as a risk factor for major depressive episode(s) . Psychological Medicine, 2005, 192, 160-163 .
75.
Wheaton, B.Sampling the stress universe. In W.R. Avison & I.H. Gotlib (Eds), Stress and mental health contemporary issues and prospects for the future. New York: Plenum Press , 1994, pp. 77-114.
76.
World Health Organization (WHO) . Composite international diagnostic interview. Version 1.0. Geneva: World Health Organization , 1990.
77.
Ylipaavalniemi, J. , Kivimaki, M. , Elovainio, M. , Virtanen, M. , Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L. & Vahtera, J.Psychosocial work characteristics and incidence of newly diagnosed depression: A prospective cohort study of three different models . Social Science & Medicine, 2005, 61, 111-122 .
