A high-performance skill is defined as one for which (1) more than 100 hours of training are required, (2) substantial numbers of individuals fail to develop proficiency, and (3) the performance of the expert is qualitatively different from that of the novice. Training programs for developing high-performance skills are often based on assumptions that may be appropriate for simple skills. These assumptions can be fallacious when extended to high performance skills. Six fallacies of training are described. Empirical characteristics of high-performance skill acquisition are reviewed. These include long acquisition periods, heterogeneity of component learning, development of inappropriate strategies, and training of timesharing skills. A tentative set of working guidelines for the acquisition of high-performance skills is described.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Anderson, J. R. (Ed.). (1981). Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.
2.
Bryan, W. L.. and Harter, N. (1899). Studies on the telegraphic language: The acquisition of a hierarchy of habits. Psychological Review. 6, 345–375.
3.
Card, S. K., Moran, T. P., and Newell, A. (1983). The psychology of human-computer interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
4.
Caro, P. W. (1973). Aircraft simulators and pilot training. Human Factors, 14, 502–509.
5.
Chase, W. G., and Ericsson, K. G. (1981). Skilled memory. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 141–189). Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.
6.
Crossman, E. R. F. W. (1959). A theory of the acquisition of speed-skill. Ergonomics, 2, 153–166.
7.
Damas, D. L., and Wickens, C. D. (1980). The identification and transfer of timesharing skills. Acta Psychologica, 46, 15–39.
8.
Deighton, L. (Ed.). (1971). Encyclopedia of education. New York: Macmillan.
9.
Duncan, J. (1980). The locus of interference on the perception of simultaneous stimuli. Psychological Review, 87, 272–300.
10.
Eberts, R., Smith, D., Dray, S., and Vestewig, R. (1982). A practical guide to measuring transfer from training devices to weapon systems (Final Report 82-SRC-I3). Minneapolis, MN: Honeywell Systems and Research Center.
11.
Fisk, A. D., and Schneider, W. (1983). Category and word search; Generalizing search principles to complex processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9, 177–195.
12.
Fleishman, E. A., and Rich, S. (1963). Role of kinesthetic and spatial-visual abilities in perceptual-motor learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66, 6–11.
13.
Frederiksen, J. R., Weaver, P. A., Warren, B. M., Gillotte, H. P., Rosebery, A. S., Freeman, B., and Goodman, L. (1983). A componential approach to training reading skills. (Final Report 5295). Cambridge, MA: Bolt Beranek and Newman.
14.
Gopher, D., and North, R. A. (1977). Manipulating the conditions of training in time-sharing performance. Human Factors, 19, 583–593.
15.
Griffin, G. R., and Mosko, J. D. (1977). Naval aviation attrition 1950–1976: Implications for the development of future research and evaluation (Report NAMRL-I237). Pensacola, FL: Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory.
16.
Hopkins, C.O. (1975). How much should you pay for that box?Human Factors, 17,533–541.
17.
James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology (Vol. 1). New York: Holt.
18.
Keller, F. S. (1958). The phantom plateau. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1, 1–13.
19.
Kennedy, R. S., Jones, M. B., and Harbeson, M. M. (1980). Assessing productivity and well-being in Navy workplaces. In Proceedings of the 13th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors Association of Canada, (pp. 8–13). Ottawa: Human Factors Association of Canada.
20.
Kennedy, R. S., and Bittner, A. C. (1980). Development of performance evaluation tests for environmental research (PETER): Complex counting test. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine. 51, 142–144.
21.
LaBerge, D. (1976). Perceptual learning and attention. In W. K. Estes (Ed.) Handbook of learning and cognitive processes (Vol. 4) (pp. 237–273). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
22.
LaBerge, D., and Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293–323.
23.
McCauley, M. E., Root, R. W., and Muckler, F. A. (1982). Training evaluation of an automated training system for air intercept controllers (Final Report NAVTRAEQUIPCEN 81-C-0055–1). Westlake Village, CA: Canyon Research Group.
24.
Moran, T. P. (1980). Compiling cognitive skill (AIP memo). Palo Alto, CA: Xerox PARC.
25.
Munro, A., Cody, J. A., and Towne, D. M. (1982). Instruction mode and instruction intrusiveness in dynamic skill training (Report ONR-99). Los Angeles: Behavioral Technology Laboratories. University of Southern California.
26.
Neisser, U.Novick, R., and Lazar, R. (1963). Searching for ten targets simultaneously. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 17, 955–961.
27.
Neves, D. M., and Anderson, J. R. (1981). Knowledge compilation: Mechanisms for the automatization of cognitive skills. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.). Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 57–84). Hillsdale, NJ; Erlbaum.
28.
Newell, A., and Rosenbloom, P. S. (1981). Mechanisms of skill acquisition and the law of practice. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 1–55). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
29.
Newell, K. M. (1976). Knowledge of results and motor learning. Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, 4, 195–228.
30.
Norman, D. A. (1976). Memory and attention: An introduction to human information processing. New York: Wiley.
31.
Pew, R. W. (1966). Acquisition of hierarchical control over the temporal organization of a skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71,764–771.
32.
Pew, R. W. (1974). Human perceptual-motor performance. In B. H. Kantowitz (Ed.). Human information processing: Tutorials in performance and cognition (pp. 1–39). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
33.
Posner, M.I., and Snyder, C. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.). Information processing and cognition: The Loyola Symposium (pp. 55–85). Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.
34.
Rumelhart, D. E., and Norman, D. A. (1982). Simulating a skilled typist: A study of skilled cognitive-motor performance. Cognitive Science, 6, 1–36.
35.
Schneider, W. (1982). Automatic/control processing concepts and their implications for the training of skills. (Tech. Report HARL-ONR-8IOI). Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, Human Attention Research Laboratory.
36.
Schneider, W., and Fisk, A. D. (l982a). Concurrent automatic and controlled visual search: Can processing occur without resource cost?Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory. and Cognition, 8, 261–278.
37.
Schneider, W., and Fisk, A. D. (1982b). Degree of consistent training: Improvements in search performance and automatic process development. Perception and Psychophysics, 31, 160–168.
38.
Schneider, W., and Fisk, A. D. (1983). Attention theory and mechanisms for skilled performance. In R. A. Magill (Ed.), Memory and control of action (pp. 119–143). New York: North-Holland.
39.
Schneider, W., and Fisk, A. D. (1984). Automatic category search and its transfer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10, 1–15.
40.
Schneider, W., and Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review, 84, 1–66.
41.
Schneider, W., Vidulich, M., and Yeh, Y. (1982). Training spatial skills for air-traffic control. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 26th Annual Meeting (pp. 10–14). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society.
42.
Seibel, R. (1963). Discrimination reaction time for a 1,023 alternative task. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66, 215–226.
43.
Shiffrin, R. M., and Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127–190.
44.
Spears, W. D. (1982). Processes of skill performance: A foundation for the design of training equipment (Report NAVTRAEQUIPCEN 78-C-0113–4). Orlando. FL: Naval Training Equipment Center.
45.
Vidulich, M., Yeh, Y., and Schneider, W. (1983). Time compressed components for air intercept control skills. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society Z7th Annual Meeting (pp. 161–164). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society.
46.
Welford, A. T. (1976). Skilled performance. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman
