Computer-based training and education are becoming increasingly prevalent and important. This article discusses the history of automated instruction, current applications, issues and problems, and future prospects. Current applications include such traditional uses of computers as testing, drills, tutorials, games, simulations, and student management. New applications include embedded training, computer literacy, interactive videodisc, and electronic lectures. The most important issue in automated instruction at present is the time and costs associated with the development of courseware. Other important problems include the difficulty of implementing individualized instruction in organizations accustomed to classroom teaching, the scarcity of educators who are computer literate, and the evaluation of courseware. Microcomputers have greatly accelerated the growth of computer-based instruction in all domains. Intelligent CAI, authoring systems, hand-held computers, speech processing, and telecommunication technologies such as videotex are seen as shaping the future direction of automated instruction.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alderman, D. L., Appel, L. R., and Murphy, R, T. (1978). PLATO and TICCIT: An evaluation of CAI in the community college. Educational Technology18(4),40–45.
2.
Anderson, R. E. (1983). Innovative microcomputer games and simulations. Simulations and Games, 14(1), 3–10.
3.
Avner, R. A. (1979). Production of computer-based instructional materials. In H. F. O'Neil, Jr. (Ed.), Issues in instructional systems development. New York: Academic Press.
4.
Badre, A., and Shneiderman, B. (1982). Directions in human computer interaction. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Bennion, J. L., and Schneider, E. W. (1981). Videodiscs. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
7.
Boen, L. L. (1983). Education technology research: Teaching with an interactive videodisc system. Educational Technology, 23(3), 42–43.
8.
Bork, A. (1981). Learning with computers. Bedford. MA: Digital Press.
9.
Braby, R., and Kincaid, J. P. (1981). Computer-aided authoring and editing. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 10(27), 109–124.
10.
Brecke, F., and Blaiwes, A. (1981). CASDAT: An innovative approach to more efficient ISO. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 10(27), 271–283.
11.
Brown, J. S., and Burton, R. R. (1978). Diagnostic models for procedural bugs in basic mathematical skills. Cognitive Science, 2, 333–369.
12.
Brown, J. S., Burton, R. R., and deKleer, J. (1982). Pedagogical, natural language and knowledge engineering techniques in SOPHIE I, II, and III. In D. Sleeman and J. S. Brown (Eds.), Intelligent tutoring systems. New York: Academic Press.
13.
Bunderson, C. V. (1974). The design and production of learner-controlled courseware for the TICCIT system. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 6, 479–491.
14.
Bunderson, C. V., Gibbons, A. S., Olsen, J. B., and Kearsley, G. (1981). Work models: Beyond instructional objectives. Instructional Science, 10, 1–11.
15.
Burton, R. R., and Brown, J. S. (1979). An investigation of computer coaching for informal learning activities. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 11, 5–24.
16.
Carbonell, J. R. (1970). AI in CAI: An artificial intelligence approach to computer-assisted instruction. IEEE Transactions on Man-Machine Systems, 11, 190–202.
17.
Card, S. K., Moran, T. P., and Newell, A. (1982). The psychology of human-computer interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
18.
Chambers, J., and Sprecher, J. (1980). Computer assisted instruction: Current trends and critical issues. Communications of the ACM, 23, 332–342.
19.
Coulson, J. E. (1962). Programmed learning and computer-based instruction. New York: Wiley.
20.
Crawford, A. M., and Crawford, K. S. (1978). Simulation of operational equipment with a computer-based instructional system: A low cost training technology. Human Factors, 20, 215–224.
21.
Cream, B. W., Eggemeier, F. T., and Klein, G. A. (1978). A strategy for the development of training devices. Human Factors, 20, 143–158.
22.
Diem, R. A., and Fairweather, P. G. (1980, Spring).An evaluation of a computer-assisted education system in an untraditional academic setting-A county jail. AEDS Journal, 204–212.
23.
Edwards, J., Norton, S., Taylor, S., Weiss, M., and Dusseldorp, R. (1975), How effective is CAI? A review of the research. Educational Leadership, 33, 147–153.
24.
Farrow, D. R. (1982, March). Reducing the risks of military aircrew training through simulation technology. NSPI Journal, pp. 13–18.
25.
Gagne, R. M. (1954). Training devices and simulators: Some research issues. American Psychologist, 9, 95–107.
26.
Galanter, E. (1959). Automatic teaching: The state of the art. New York: Wiley.
27.
Glenn, A. D., Kosen, N. A., and Pollack, R. A. (1984). Teaching economics: Research findings from a microcomputer/videodisc project. Educational Technology, 24(3), 30–32.
28.
Goldberg, A., and Ross, J. (1982). Is the SMALLTALK-80 system for children?BYTE, 6(8), 348–368.
29.
Goldberg, M. (1983, June). Survey shows disc training works well for American Bell. E&ITV, 57.
30.
Heines, J. (1983). Screen design strategies for computer assisted instruction. Bedford, MA: Digital Press.
31.
House, E. R. (1974). An illustrative case of internal politics-PLATO comes to the community college. In The politics of educational innovation. Berkeley, CA: McCutcheon.
32.
HumRRO Videodisc Group. (1982). Instructional applications of spatial data management. Videodisc/Videotex, 2(3), 181–187.
33.
Jamison, D., Suppes, P., and Wells, S. (1974). The effectiveness of alternative instructional media: A survey. Review of Educational Research, 44, 1–61.
34.
Kearsley, G. (1977). The costs of CAI: A matter of assumptions. AEDS Journal, 10, 100–112.
35.
Kearsley, G. (1981). Videodiscs in education and training. Videodisc/Videotex, 1(4), 208–220.
36.
Kearsley, G. (1982). Authoring systems in computer-based education. Communications of the ACM, 25, 429–437.
37.
Kearsley, G. (1983). Computer based training: A guide to selection and implementation. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
38.
Kearsley, G. (1984a). Training and technology. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
39.
Kearsley, G. (1984b). Authoring tools: An introduction. Journal of Computer Based Instruction, 11(2), 1–2.
40.
Kearsley, G., and Hilleisohn, M. J. (1982). Human factors considerations for computer based training. Journal of Computer Based Instruction, 8(4), 74–84.
41.
Kearsley, G., and Hilleisohn, M. J. (1984, January). How and why (and why not) we use computer based training. Training and Development Journal, 21–24.
42.
Kearsley, G., Hunter, B., and Seidel, R. J. (1983, January and February). Two decades of CBI research: What have we learned?THE Journal, 10.
43.
Kopstein, F., and Seidel, R. J. (1968). Computer assisted instruction versus traditionally administered instruction: Economics. AVCR, 16, 147–175.
44.
Kulik, J. A., Kulik, C. C., and Cohen, P. A. (1980). Effectiveness of computer-based college teaching: A meta-analysis of findings. Review of Educational Research, 50(4), 525–544.
45.
Lathrop, A., and Goodson, B. (1982). Courseware in the classroom. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.
46.
Lippey, G. (1974). Computer assisted test construction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
47.
Malone, T. W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 5, 130–145.
48.
McCauley, M. (1984). Human factors in voice technology. In F. A. Muckier (Ed.), Human Factors Review: 1984 (pp. 131–166). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society.
49.
Merrill, M. D., Schneider, E. W., and Fletcher, K. A. (1980). TICCIT. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
50.
Merrill, M. D., and Wood, L. E. (1984). Computer guided instructional design. Journal of Computer Based Instruction, 11(2), 60–63.
51.
Montague, W, E., and Wulfeck, W. H. (1984). Computer based instruction: Will it improve instructional quality?Training Technology Journal, 1(2),4–19.
52.
Montague, W. E., Wulfeck, W. H., and Ellis, J. A. (1984). Quality CBI depends on quality instructional design and quality implementation.Journal of Computer Based Instruction, 10(3 and 4), 90–93.
53.
O'Neal, A. F., and O'Neal, H. L. (1979). Author management systems. In H. F. O'Neil, Jr. (Ed.), Issues in instructional systems development. New York: Academic Press.
54.
Orlansky, J., and String, J. (1981). Computer-based instruction for military training. Defense Management Journal, pp. 46–54.
55.
Orlansky, J., and String, J. (1983). Cost-effectiveness of maintenance simulators for military training. Machine-Mediated Learning, 1(1), 41–65.
56.
Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms. New York: Basic Books.
57.
Pressey, S. L. (1927). A machine for automatic teaching of drill material. School and Society, 25, 1–14.
58.
Reeves, T. C., and Lent, R. M. (1984). Levels of evaluation for computer based instruction. In D. F. Walker and R. D. Hess (Eds.), Instructional software. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
59.
Robinson, E. R., and Knirk, F. G. (1984). Interfacing learning strategies and instructional strategies in-computer training programs. In. F. A. Muckier (Ed.), Human Factors Review: 1984 (pp. 209–238). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society.
60.
Sanders, W. R., Benbasset, G. V., and Smith, R. L. (1976). Speech synthesis for CAI: The MISS system and its applications. ACM SIGCUE Bulletin, 8, 208–211.
61.
Sands, W. A., and Gade, P. A. (1983). An application of computerized adaptive testing in U.S. Army recruiting. Journal of Computer Based Instruction, 10(3 and 4), 87–89.
62.
Seidel, R. J. (1980, March). Do you know where your computer is?Phi Delta Kappan, pp. 481–485.
63.
Seidel, R. J., Anderson, R., and Hunter, B. (1982). Computer literacy. New York: Academic Press.
64.
Seidel, R. J., and Rubin, M. L. (1977). Computers and communications. New York: Academic Press.
65.
Seidel, R. J., and Wagner, H. (1981). Management. In H. F. O'Neil (Ed.), Computer based instruction. New York: Academic Press.
66.
Shneiderman, B. (1980). Software psychology. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop.
67.
Skinner, B. F. (1958). Teaching machines. Science, 128, 969–977.
68.
Skinner, B. F. (1968). The technology of teaching. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts.
69.
Sleeman, D., and Brown, J. S. (1982). Intelligent tutoring systems. New York: Academic Press.
70.
Smode, A. F. (1974). Recent developments in instructor station design and utilization for flight simulators. Human Factors, 16, 1–18.
71.
Steinberg, E. R. (1984). Teaching computers to teach. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
72.
Stevens, A. L., and Collins, A. (1980). Multiple conceptual models of a computer system. In R. E. Snow, P. Federico, and W. E. Montague (Eds.), Aptitude, learning and instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
73.
Thomas, D. B. (1979). The effectiveness of CAI in secondary schools. AEDS Journal, 12(3), 103–116.
74.
Thomas, J., and Schneider, M. (1984). Human factors in computer systems. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
75.
Venezky, R. L. (1984). Evaluating computer-assisted instruction on its own terms. In A. C. Wilkinson (Ed.), Classroom computers and cognitive science. New York: Academic Press.
76.
Vinsonhaler, J., and Bass, R. (1972). A summary of ten major studies of CAI drill and practice. Educational Technology, 12(7), 29–32.
77.
Weiss, D. J. (1979) Computerized adaptive achievement testing. In H. F. O'Neil, Jr., (Ed.), Procedures for instructional systems development. New York: Academic Press.
78.
Williams, M., Hollan, J., and Stevens, A. (1981). An overview of STEAMER: An advanced computer-assisted instruction system for propulsion engineering. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 13(2), 85–90.
79.
Williges, R. C. (1984). The tide of computer technology.Human Factors, 26, 109–114.
