A search of the psychological, technical, and promotional literature was conducted to compile information relevant to key, keyboard, and operator characteristics. The most recent and significant articles were discussed and evaluated. Where possible, general conclusions have been drawn to aid the keyboard designer.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AvakianE. A.Applications and utility of alphabetic clusters, the non-QWERTY keyboards. Paper presented at the Workshop on Keysets and Keyboards of the IEEE Man-Machine Systems Group, Gaithersburg, Maryland, December 1968
2.
AvanzinoL.GarlandS.HorneB.RichardsonT.StorkE.UmsteadH.Proposed U.S.A. standard: Logically bit-paired ASCII keyboard arrangement. USA Standards Institute Subcommittee X4-A9, Task Group 1, April 1969
3.
AyresA.Word writing machine producing closed-up printing in response to simultaneous actuation of keys. Patent Specification 3,225,883, patented December 28, 1965
4.
BarmackJ. E.SinaikoH.Human factors problems in computer-generated graphic displays. Institute for Defense Analyses SD-50, April 2, 1966. (AD636170)
5.
BergosR.An analysis and comparison of typescript errors made on electric typewriters with those made on non-electric typewriters. Abstract inThe National Business Education Quarterly, 1960,29, (4), 9–10
6.
BinkhorstR. A.CarlsööS.The thumb-forefinger grip and the shape of handles of certain instruments: An electromyographic study of the muscle-loadErgonomics, 1962,5, 467–470
7.
BowenH. M.GuinnessG. V.Preliminary experiments on keyboard design for semi-automatic mail sortingJournal of Applied Psychology, 1965,49, 194–198
8.
CamusoA. (Ed.) New concept in man-machine interface devicesComputer Design, September 1968,7, 32
9.
CarlsonG.Predicting clerical error in an EDP environmentDatamation, February 1963,9, 34—36
10.
ConradR.Short-term memory factor in the design of data-entry keyboardsJournal of Applied Psychology, 1966,50, 353–356
11.
ConradR.HullA. J.The preferred layout for numerical data-entry keysetsErgonomics, 1968,11, 165–173
12.
ConradR.LongmanD. J. A.Standard typewriter versus chord keyboard-an experimental comparisonErgonomics, 1965,8, 77–88
13.
CornogJ. R.HockmanJ. F.CraigJ. C.Address encoding-a study of the double-binary keyboard as a link in the machine-sorting of mail (paper 63 WA 338). American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1963
14.
CreamerL. R.TrumboD. A.Multifinger tapping performance as a function of the direction of tapping movementsJournal of Applied Psychology, 1960, 44, 376–380
15.
DanielsR. W.GrafC. P.The influence of keyset interlocks on operator performance (Report No. 12215-FR1). Honeywell Systems and Research Center, April 30, 1970
16.
DavidsonL.A pushbutton telephone for alphanumeric input-two extra buttonsDatamation, April 1966,27–30
17.
DeiningerR. L.Human factors engineering studies of the design and use of pushbutton telephone setsBell Systems Technical Journal, 1960,39, 995–1012
18.
DiehlM. J.SeibelR.The relative importance of visual and auditory feedback in speed typewritingJournal of Applied Psychology, 1962,46, 365–369
DroegeR. C.HillM.Comparison of performance on manual and electric typewritersJournal of Applied Psychology, 1961,45, 268–270
21.
DunnA. G.Engineering of the typing keyboard from the human factors viewpointComputers and Automation. February 1971,32–33
22.
DvorakA.MerrickN. F.DealeyW. L.FordG. C.Typewriting behavior: Psychology applied to teaching and learning typewriting.New York: American Book Co., 1936
23.
FlanaganC.FivarsG.TuskaS. A.Predicting success in typing and keyboard operationPersonnel and Guidance Journal, 1959,37, 353–357
24.
FleishmanE. A.RichS.Role of kinesthetic and spatial-visual abilities in perceptual-motor learningJournal of Experimental Psychology, 1963,66, 6–11
25.
FoxJ. G.StansfieldR. G.Digram keying times for typistsErgonomics, 1964,7, 317–320
26.
GalitzW. O.CRT keyboard human factors evaluation. UNIVAC, Systems Application Engineering, Roseville DPD, March 1965
27.
GalitzW. O.CRT keyboard human factors evaluation: Study II. UNIVAC, Systems Application Engineering, Roseville DPD, February 1966. (a)
28.
GalitzW. O.CRT keyboard human factors evaluation: Study III. UNIVAC Systems Application Engineering, Roseville DPD, June 8, 1966. (b)
29.
GalliE. J.The stenowriter system. IBM Research Report RC-308, July 1960
30.
GarrettJ. W.The adult human hand: Some anthropometric and biomechanical considerationsHuman Factors, 1971,13, 117–131
31.
HaalandJ.Anatomic and physiological consideration of the use of the thumb for manual control in space flight. Honeywell Memorandum, July 11, 1962
32.
HaalandJ.WingertJ.OlsonB. A.Force required to actuate switches, maximum fingerpushing force, and coefficient of friction of Mercury gloves. Honeywell Memorandum, February 23, 1963
33.
HarkinsW. H.Switch system for consolesIndustrial Design, 1965,1–7
34.
HillixW. A.CoburnR.Human factors in keyset design (NEL/Report 1023). San Diego, California: U.S. Naval Electronics Laboratory, March 1961. (AD 622368)
35.
HirschR. S.Effects of standard versus alphabetical keyboard formats on typing performanceJournal of Applied Psychology, 1970,54, 484–490
36.
HowellC.KreidlerL.Information processing under contradictory instructional setsJournal of Experimental Psychology, 1963,65, 30–46
37.
HuffordL. E.CobumR.Operator performance on miniaturized decomalentry keysets (NEL/Report 1083). San Diego, California: U.S. Naval Electronics Laboratory, December 1961
38.
KallageR.Electronic keyboard design with n-key rolloverComputer Design, February 1972,57–61
39.
KinkeadR. D.GonzalezBarbara K.Human factors design recommendations for touch-operated keyboards-final report (Document 12091-FR). Minneapolis: Honeywell Inc., March 1969
KlemmerE. T.LockheadG. R.Productivity and errors in two keying tasks: A field studyJournal of Applied Psychology, 1962,46, 401–408. (a)
42.
KlemmerE. T.LockheadG. R.Further data on card punch operator performance (Research note NC 39). Yorktown Heights, New York: IBM, Thomas J. Watson Research Center, 1962. (b)
43.
KramerJ. J.Human factors problems in the use of pushbutton telephones for data entry (VDE-VERLAG GooBtt). Proceedings of Fourth International Symposium on Human Factors in Telephony, Berlin, 1970,241–258
44.
KroemerK. H. E.The effect of keyset layout on performance on typewritersInternational Zeitschrift angewandt Physiologie, 1964,20, 240–251
45.
KroemerK. H. E.Comparison of a keyboard of a normal typewriter with a “K-keyboard.”International Zeitschrift angewandt Physiologie.1965,20, 453–464
46.
LeeW. A.SnodgrassJ. G.On the relation between numbering preferences and performance on a ten-button key board. Abstract inAmerican Psychologist, 1958,13, 425
47.
LeonardJ. A.CarpenterA.On the correlation between a serial-choice task and subsequent achievement of typewritingErgonomics, 1964,7, 197–204
48.
LeonardJ. A.ConradR.Maintenance of high accuracy without augmented feedbackNature, 1963,512–513
49.
LeonardJ. A.NewmanR. C.On the acquisition and maintenance of high speed and high accuracy in a keyboard taskErgonomics, 1965,8, 281–304
50.
LewinM. H.Portable electronic keyboard for computer input by telephoneIEEE Transactions on Electronic Computers, 1967,EC-16, 332–334
51.
LincolnR. A.KonzS. A.Effect of switch configuration on the operation of a switch matrixJournal of Applied Psychology, 1966,50, 375–382
52.
LohseC. (Ed.) Proposed U.S.A. standard: General-purpose alphanumeric keyboard arrangement for information interchangeCommunications of the ACM, 1968,11, 126–129. (a)
53.
LohseC. (Ed.) Proposed USASCSOCR dual-case keyboard arrangementCommunications of the ACM, 1968,11, 130–131. (b)
54.
LundervoldA. J. S.Electromyographic investigations of position and manner of working in typewritingActa Physiologica Scandinavica, 1951,24, (Supplementum 84)
55.
MccauleyR.ParkinsonR.The new popularity of the Dvorak simplified keyboardComputers and Automation, February 1971,31–32
56.
MccormickE. J.Human factors engineering. (2nd ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964
MichaelsS. E.QWERTY versus alphabetic keyboards as a function of typing skillHuman Factors, 1971,13, 419–426
59.
MinorF. J.Experimental comparison of two keyboard interlock systemsJournal of Engineering Psychology, 1964,3, 9–15
60.
MinorF. J.RevesmanS. L.Evaluation of input devices for a data setting taskJournal of Applied Psychology, 1962,46, 332–336
61.
MonetaKatherine B.EOptimum physical design of an alphabetical keyboard. Part I. Survey of the literature. Post Office Research Report No. 20412, Part 1, November 1960
62.
NewmanK. M.CoburnR.McmahanR. C.Experimental study of binary coded keysets (NEL/Report 1137). San Diego, California: U.S. Naval Electronics Laboratory, September 1962. (AD 291796)
63.
PaulF.SarlanisK.BuckleyE. P.A human factors comparison of two data entry keyboards. Paper presented at Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Symposium on Human Factors in Electronics, Boston, May 1965
64.
PhillipsSue AnnKincaidJ. P.The human engineering of the typewriter keyboard: A case in pointHuman Factors Society Bulletin, July 1971,14, 7–8
65.
PollockW. T.GildnerG. G.Study of computer manual input devices (ESD-TDR-63-545). USAF: Decision Sciences Laboratory, L. G. Hanscom Field, Bedford, Massachusetts, September 1963. (AD 419254)
66.
PoultonE. C.BrownC. H.Rate of comprehension of an existing teleprinter output and of possible alternativesJournal of Applied Psychology, 1968,52, 16–21
67.
RatzH. C.RitchieD. K.Operator performance on a chord keyboardJournal of Applied Psychology, 1961,45, 303–308
68.
RemingtonR. J.RogersMarilyn.Keyboards: Human engineering design criteria (TR 29.0042). Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: IBM Systems Development Division, February 1969
69.
RosbergerP.Double functions per unit space with binary keyboardResearch/Development, July 1965,16, 35–38
70.
ScalesE. M.ChapanisA.The effect on performance of tilting the toll-operator's keysetJournal of Applied Psychology, 1954,38, 452–456
71.
SeibelR.Performance on a five-finger chord keyboardJournal of Applied Psychology, 1962,46, 165–169
72.
SeibelR.Data entry through chord, parallel entry devicesHuman Factors, 1964,6, 189–192
73.
ShafferL. H.HardwickJ.Errors and error detection in typingQuarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969,21, 209–213. (a)
74.
ShafferL. H.HardwickJ.Reading and typingQuarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969,21, 381–383. (b)
75.
SmithS. L.GoodwinNancy C.Alphabetic data entry via the touch-tone pad: A commentHuman Factors, 1971,13, 189–190
76.
SmithW. A.Jr. Accuracy of manual entries in data-collection devices,Journal of Applied Psychology, 1967,51, 362–368
77.
StrongE. P.A comparative experiment in simplified keyboard retraining and standard keyboard supplementary training. Washington, D.C.: General Services Administration, 1956
78.
United States military standards: Human engineering design criteria for aerospace systems and equipment. Part 1: Aerospace system ground equipment (MIL-STD-803 A-1). 1964
79.
WelfordA. T.The measurement of sensory-motor performance: Survey and reappraisal of twelve years’ progressErgonomics, 1960,3, 189–229
80.
WestL. J.Review of research in typewriting learning with recommendation for training (AFPTRC-TN-57-69). USAF: Air Force Personnel and Training Research Center, Lowry AFB, Colorado, June 1957. (AD 126400)
81.
WestL. J.Vision and kinesthesis in the acquisition of typewriting skillJournal of Applied Psychology, 1967,51, 161–166
82.
WestL. J.Fatigue and performance variability among typistsJournal of Applied Psychology, 1969,53, 80–86
83.
WestL. J.BolanovichD. J.Evaluation of typewriting proficiency training: Preliminary test developmentJournal of Applied Psychology, 1963,47, 403–407
