Abstract
Objective
The aim of the study was to verify if soft-skills training is an effective intervention in reducing work-related stress among miners, that is, people who run the risk of losing health and/or life due to unpredictable natural forces or human error at work.
Background
The motivation for the intervention was based on Job Demands-Resources model where soft skills are job resources that help individuals to cope with or prevent high demands of the environment. The needed skills as well as work demands were first investigated and then a custom training was developed. The rationale for introducing soft-skills training into the work environment can be seen as compatible with the Human Capital Model (HCM) which is designed to stimulate positive organizational behaviour by providing an effective approach to ensure employees’ adequate coping with work-related stress.
Method
96 volunteer employees were assigned to intervention (n = 48) and comparison (n = 48) groups. 16-hour tailored training covered tasks and simulation games related to communication, teambuilding, self-management and conflict resolution skills. Job Content Questionnaire, Occupational Stress Indicator (modified to fit the mining environment) and General Health Questionnaire were used in the study. A MANOVA with effect-size measures was conducted.
Results
Results revealed a significant increase in decision latitude and social support for the trainees. A substantial decrease in stress was also observed, along with a significant decrease in general health problems. There were no such changes in the comparison group.
Conclusions
A soft-skills training, including communication, teamwork, self-motivation and conflict-resolution skills, helped participants to cope better with the stressful environment and improved their mental health. These effects lasted three months later.
Application
The intervention improved miners’ psychosocial health and the strategies of coping with stress, which increased safety and health in the company. Investigating the effectiveness of such interventions included in the general Human Capital Model, as it was done in the study, might be a step forward towards building an interdisciplinary approach for health and safety and human resources.
Introduction
Work-Related Stress and Miners’ Stress
Work-related stress is a psychological state where a worker’s resources are subjectively assessed as insufficient to meet the requirements imposed by the working environment (Cooper & Payne, 1978; Cox, 1987; French et al., 1982; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), or as a state of loss of control over the actions which are to be taken in the process of fulfilling one’s duties (Karasek, 1979; Robbins & Judge, 2019). The stress state is a conscious state, but the level of awareness of the problem varies. The awareness depends on the relationships between the work environment and the employee’s perceptions of work, between those perceptions and the experience of stress, and between that experience and the changes in behaviour and in health (Cox, 1987).
Stress experienced by miners and other employees performing underground work results from the risk of loss of health and/or life from unpredictable natural forces (e.g. tunnel wall breaks, collapses, falling rocks, gas explosions, machinery failures) or human error. There are many serious consequences of high stress in the mining sector, such as decreasing productivity, high frequency of work-related mistakes and serious errors, an increase in absence from work, or an increased risk of mental disorders, heart diseases and diabetes, which have been reported in the international literature (Arif & Adeyemi, 2020; Li et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2020; Yong et al., 2020; Yu & Li, 2020), as well as in Poland (Grodzicka, 2013; Morcinek-Słota, 2018; Wysokiński et al., 2015).
Studies of work conditions in various sectors concur in pointing to the lowering of work-related stress as a major predictor of general health improvement (Feola et al., 2016; Foitzek et al., 2018; Goldberg & Williams, 1991; Siegrist, 2008). The literature around work-related stress provides evidence of correlations between soft skills and occupational stress (Aloia & McTigue, 2019; Macgeorge et al., 2005). Variables such as team cooperation, role conflict, type of communication with supervisors, are significantly related to workers’ levels of stress on a day-to-day basis (Diebig et al., 2017). The supervisor-worker relationship is mediated by team cooperation. Some research suggests leadership training as an effective intervention in occupational health for both mental (Kelloway & Barling, 2010) and physical well-being (Theorell et al., 2001). Positive leader behaviours, such as support, empowerment and consideration, are associated with a low degree of employee stress and with high employee affective well-being (Milligan-Saville et al., 2017; Skakon et al., 2010). Stressors are also negatively related to effective communication, and this negative effect is buffered by supervisor communication (Teng et al., 2020). Effective communication and collaboration were established as conducive to improving individual, team and organisational safety in the mining sector (Haas et al., 2014).
Some interventions for miners have included suicide prevention programs and supervisor training (Tynan et al., 2018), mindfulness trainings (Molek-Winiarska & Żołnierczyk-Zreda, 2018) or an intervention creating a safer work environment and culture (Möller & Rothmann, 2014). Also McGuire has described numerous trainings for miners, including developing skills in the area of leadership, communication, teamwork, coaching and conflict resolution (J. McGuire et al., 2013). He underlines the value of implementing soft skills trainings in the mining sector as a part of building ‘a safety culture’ (J. McGuire, 2015; J. McGuire et al., 2021). The vast majority of interventions are related to health and safety and ergonomic improvements.
Soft Skills and their Relationship to Reducing Stress
The term ‘soft skills’ is typically evoked in the context of social competences affected not only by personality and temperamental patterns but also by experience. A skill is a demonstrable ability to apply knowledge and experience at work, study and in personal development. Soft skills include communication (both written and oral), critical and strategic thinking, willingness to learn and accept responsibility (Andrews & Higson, 2008; Varela, 2020), empathy and problem-solving (Tsaoussi, 2020), teamwork and personal development (Losekoot et al., 2018), creativity (Chassidim et al., 2018), leadership, self-management and time management skills (Devedzic et al., 2018; Wickens & Norris, 2018), and (occasionally) professionalism, reliability, ability to cope with uncertainty, and work under pressure (Andrews & Higson, 2008). Many international studies show deficits in employees’ soft skills, including the areas of self-management, communication or teamwork (Kauffeld, 2006). Meanwhile, these skills are of significant importance for effective operations. In the continuous assessment and planned training sessions, an organisation can monitor and intervene when employees’ soft skills are lacking in order to prevent them from experiencing stress and lowering productivity.
The link between soft skills and work-related stress reduction is considered in the Job Demands-Resources model (JD-R) (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Demerouti et al., 2001), where soft skills, such as communication, conflict resolution, teamwork or self-management are considered as job resources. In the case of high job demands, and thus high stress, soft skills are used to reduce stressors and help employees take control over problematic situations (Bakker et al., 2010). Soft skills also produce motivation and lead to engagement with work. By introducing soft-skills trainings, work-related stressors previously perceived as overwhelming may present themselves as controllable if an employee has specific resources to restore control over the situation, for example, to mitigate conflicts or repair miscommunication (Hargrove et al., 2015; Podsakoff et al., 2007). Coherently designed occupational training sessions can prove useful in limiting stressors at work, but given different sources of work-related stress, such as interpersonal conflicts, job ambiguity or even life-threatening environment, the problem can also be addressed through soft-skills workshops (Hargrove et al., 2015) and may prove effective as a primary stress management intervention (Podsakoff et al., 2007; Skakon et al., 2010).
The rationale for introducing soft-skills training into the work environment can be seen as compatible with the Human Capital Model (HCM), which is defined as the stock of knowledge, experience and social and individual attributes, including skills, used to perform labour and produce economic value (Becker, 1993; Grossman, 2000). Increasing human capital can be linked to undertaking primary interventions in the management of both positive (challenge) and negative (hindrance) stressors (Podsakoff, 2007). The model incorporates stimulants to be evaluated by employees in terms of challenging (and thus stressful) dimensions such as workload, work pace, work complexity and work responsibilities (Stansfeld & Candy, 2006). The model is also expanded to cover the taxonomy of potential effects of stress management interventions for both positive and negative stressors. HCM involves optimising the levels of challenging stimulants that are concurrent with the reduction of those stimulants that negatively affect work performance. In this manner, it theoretically grounds the relations between soft skills development and work-related stress reduction.
Some of the benefits of HCM implementation have been assessed in practice and include higher job certainty, a positive atmosphere, low competitiveness, continual development and low levels of stress (Crook et al., 2011; Ryan, 1980). Job skills training sessions (including soft skills) are a substantial element of building human capital (Bowles et al., 2001), while investing in individuals’ skill development increases both employee and organisational income. Thus, HCM might be a well-established instrument designed to stimulate positive organisational culture by providing an effective approach to the continuous development of skills and, through that, also contributing to the reduction of stress in the work environment. The idea of developing a custom soft skills-oriented intervention that would include communication, cooperation and teamwork, and social support undertaken in this study originated both from a review of literature and from the needs analysis done by the studied organisation. Below are the rationales for the customization of the soft-skills trainings to be administered as stress reduction interventions.
Communication training may result in the reduction of job stress by providing employees with the fundamentals of clear, open, and accurate identification of misunderstandings as stressors, as well as the ability to evaluate sources of potential stress that stem from inadequate information about duties and employer expectations (Robbins & Judge, 2019). In addition, practising regular and direct communication allows for the continual adjustment of work requirements to the capabilities and expectations of employees. When such adjustments are not viable (i.e. negotiations are rare and communications of expectations are oblique), the employee may feel frustration, a sense of inadequacy and, in turn, chronic stress (Edwards, 1988; Hargrove et al., 2013).
Conflict resolution is a useful skill in situations involving multiple individuals forced to collaborate on a given task (Robbins & Judge, 2019). Conflict resolution skills enable a person to analyse their needs and stances, to envision those of others and to seek solutions that are satisfactory, or at least acceptable to all parties. Both psychologists and management-studies specialists have shown the positive influence of conflict resolution training on managing stress (Dijkstra et al., 2009; Haraway & Haraway, 2005; Katz & Flynn, 2013).
The basic theories concerning teambuilding indicate the need to rely on co-workers’ psychological maturity (Hersey & Blanchard, 1982). Teambuilding requires such skills as listening to others, communicating clearly and mitigating conflict (Tosi et al., 2000). Teambuilding cannot proceed smoothly without recognising work roles correctly and taking responsibility not only for oneself, but also for others in the team (Beckhard, 1969). While communication and conflict resolution both contribute to reducing stress, teambuilding creates social support networks (Tosi et al., 2000). These networks are confirmed to be crucial elements in decreasing stress as well (Karasek & Theorell, 1990). Teambuilding skills play an important role in such circumstances where one’s health or life depends on collaborating effectively with others (such as in the mining sector). In addition, there are concepts derived from management studies that indicate a positive relationship between social support and coping with stress (LaRocco et al., 1980). Work-related stress can be dealt with effectively when the required support is sourced from the work environment (such as from supervisors and co-workers, not just family or friends) (Beehr, 1985). The level and type of social support in organisational settings largely determine employees’ job satisfaction and reduce occupational stress (Ganster et al., 1986; Hurlbert, 1991; G. M. McGuire, 2007). In the face of danger resulting from unpredictable conditions, miners must feel trust and support, even if their relationships are not always perfect. Increasing interpersonal skills, team cohesion, as well as mutual trust and support were a matter of concern for the mining H&S experts.
Self-management is another complex skill that allows one to plan and organise work-time, to align with plans and possibilities of other workers, and to deploy controls to check the quality of one’s outputs in the context of time management and aim achievement (Robbins & Judge, 2019; Tosi et al., 2000). Since stress is often perceived as a loss of control over one’s outputs, having good self-management skills is an obvious boost in controlling the ways tasks are structured and in helping prevent (or cope with) stressful situations (Häfner et al., 2014; Jex & Elacqua, 1999). Studies have also confirmed that self-management mitigates various types of stressors due to the perceived and received social support at the workplace (Brannon et al., 2022). The skill of self-management was chosen by mining representatives as an important resource in coping with stressful situations resulting from the frequent need to deal with changing plans due to unpredictable environmental conditions (unstable rock, gas explosions etc.).
In light of the above, the design of this study requires building a custom training rather than replicating one, given the shortage of well-documented interventions guided by the HCM, and the recognition of the importance of soft skills for stress reduction in the mining sector. Thus, this study reports on a custom intervention conducted in a mining company in the form of soft-skills training. To set up the training properly, in-depth discussions with the human resources (HR) and health and safety (H&S) managers of a Polish copper mine were conducted to review the most significant sources of stress. It was agreed that the training should focus on the development of four essential skills: communication, teamwork, self-management and conflict resolution. The objective of the study was to answer the following questions:
Does the soft-skills training tailored to the characteristics of mining work bring an effective reduction of work-related stress and general health improvement among miners?
If so, will the effects be persistent over time?
In order to answer these questions, four hypotheses were established as follows:
The soft-skills training will reduce work-related stress
The soft-skills training will improve general health
The lower level of stress will be maintained for 3 months after the training
The higher level of general health will be maintained for 3 months after the training In order to check the hypotheses, an intervention was conducted. The study was approved by the Rector’s Committee for Research Ethics at the Wroclaw University of Economics and Business (case no. 33/2020).
Materials and methods
Participants
Participants in the intervention and comparison groups were volunteers selected from seven divisions (underground sections where the raw material is extracted) of a mining complex which employs a total of 2200 employees, including supervisors. Each division has a similar employment structure. The soft-skills intervention was developed for personnel working underground, holding the positions of miners, blasters, mining machine operators, as well as line managers (mine foreman and shift foreman). The research participants were to be members of a typical shift crew. They are responsible for organising and managing the extraction process (sometimes with the use of explosives) and transmission of extracted material to the ground, as well as all the tasks related to securing the spaces created after extraction with hydraulic undergirds. These workers also monitor the work of heavy machinery used for drilling and anchoring and thus work under the constant threat of quakes. The selection of these specific positions was intentional: they were considered the most stressful jobs, as the underground workers are exposed to the greatest dangers.
Workers in all divisions were given the opportunity to participate in a soft-skills training. Information sessions for representatives of all divisions were organised, where prospective participants were introduced to the key objectives of the training and the details of administering them. Volunteers who decided to take part in the training formed a group of 48 participants: the intervention group (age: mean 41; range 27–58; SD 9.4; job tenure: mean 11.8; range: 1–26; SD 6.8).
The comparison group was composed of workers holding the same positions as those from the intervention group. In order to recruit the same proportions of miners, blasters, mining machine operators and line managers, workers holding these specific positions were asked to be included the comparison group. Those employees who agreed to participate were asked to fill in the same questionnaires that were distributed to the intervention group. This recruitment procedure was conducted during periodical H&S meetings for workers. Then, the group of 48 workers was selected from those who filled in the questionnaires to best approximate the positions the intervention group. Employees in the comparison group were characterised by comparable working conditions (rock mass type) and mining techniques (age: mean 42; range 24–56; SD 7.6; job tenure: mean 10.4; range: 1–22; SD 5.7). Both groups were composed solely of male participants. Eight participants in the intervention sample and five in the comparison sample had university degrees, with the remaining participants reporting occupational (vocational) or secondary education.
Materials
Work-related stress was measured using two tools. The first was the Polish version of Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ) (Karasek et al., 1998; Żołnierczyk-Zreda & Bedyńska, 2014). 32-items JCQ scale was used in this study: decision latitude (9 items), psychological demands (9 items), social support (8 items) and job insecurity scales (6 items). Each item in all subscales has four answer categories (from 1 = totally disagree, to 4 = totally agree). The high scores are over the mean value which was 62 – in decision latitude, 25 – in psychological demands, 23 – in social support and 7 – in job insecurity (c.f. Żołnierczyk-Zreda & Bedyńska, 2014). The second tool used was a modified Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI) (Cooper et al., 1988). Modifications were made to address the specific environment of the miners’ work, that is, the risks resulting from work underground. The modified version (henceforth Mod OSI) included 25 out of original 40 items covered by 7 subscales: the personal workload, relationships, the home-work balance, personal responsibility, the daily hassles subscale, recognition and organisational climate. The ‘managerial role’ subscale was removed due to the majority of participants being manual workers (even foremen were not managers in the meaning presented in the questionnaire). The ‘personal workload’ scale consisted of 5 items related to time pressure, excessive task load or the level of task difficulty. ‘Relationships’ were reduced to three items investigating possible on-the-shift conflicts or problems in getting adequate support. The ‘home-work’ balance subscale covered three items focusing on private problems, value conflicts and physiological difficulties related to shift work. ‘Personal responsibility’ was assessed by three items investigating job role conflicts and ambiguity of decisions. The ‘daily hassles’ subscale was reconstructed around three items broadly describing the unpredictable and inhospitable environment underground. ‘Recognition’ was measured by four items focused on work appreciation from immediate supervisors. The last subscale – ‘organisational climate’ – was represented by 4 items. These items were related to the assessment of procedures in the organisation of a typical shift. Responses range were rated from 1 – ‘It is definitely not the source of my stress’ to 6 – ‘It is definitely the source of my stress’. High scores in each subscale as well as in the whole questionnaire indicate the high level of stress resulted from a particular source of work environment. Low level of stress is ranged over 0–50 pts; medium level is within the range 51–100 pts; high stress refers to the range 101–125 pts and severe stress is experienced between 126 and 175 pts. A correlation of this version with the original OSI questionnaire (conducted prior to the study on a pilot group of 164 miners from the same company) was r = 0.54. This was considered a sufficient result to allow the use of the version in the study, as there are numerous other modified versions of OSI used in studies (Faragher et al., 2004; Pedditzi et al., 2020; Ramaci et al., 2020; Siu et al., 1997), and even OSI authors themselves encourage modifying questionnaire questions to fine-tune to the organisation-specific environment (Robertson et al., 1990; Williams & Cooper, 1998). Mental and physical health was assessed using the 28-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ 28) (Goldberg & Williams, 1991). The original version of the GHQ diagnoses four distress dimensions: somatic complaints, anxiety and insomnia, social dysfunction, and depression. Each subscale has 7 items. Each item of the GHQ 28 was rated on a 4-point scale, from 0 – ‘less than usual’, 1 – ‘no more than usual’, 2 – ‘rather more than usual’ and 3 – ‘much more than usual’. The higher number of points collected on each scale, the more mental problems are experienced by a person. The mean values for ‘healthy’ people are 26.12 on the whole scale and 7.80 in somatic complaints subscale; 7.29 in anxiety and insomnia subscale; 7.96 in social dysfunction subscale and 3.07 in depression subscale (c.f. Goldberg & Williams, 1991). The psychometric properties of all the questionnaires employed in the study were sufficient (Mod OSI; α Cr = 0.86; JCQ; α Cr = 0.72; GHQ 28, α Cr = 0.82).
The soft skills training sessions focused on developing four main soft skills, that is, communication, teamwork, self-management and conflict solving, involved in the following activities: 1. Communication exercises were staged in both vertical and lateral directions, with an emphasis on supportive communication. The basic models of verbal and nonverbal communication were presented at the beginning of the training, together with the goals of vertical and lateral communication. Then, such basic skills as active listening, asking questions, giving feedback and paraphrasing were trained in pairs or with a trainer. Finally, drama and games were used to present and then train persuasive communication and influencing others in order to analyse the effectiveness of communicative solutions in different situations. This part lasted for 4 hours. 2. Teamwork tasks, recognising Belbin’s theory of group roles (Belbin, 2010) for, individual and mutual responsibility were developed. This module started with filling in Belbin’s team roles questionnaire. After establishing individual roles, participants worked in teams in order to achieve simulated goals (e.g., building a paper tower without scissors, glue or other tools). Teamwork dynamics was observed and in-depth analysis was conducted and discussed after the task. The real roles in each team were compared with those from Belbin’s questionnaire. Finally, the rules of teambuilding in the company during shift work were discussed. Participants identified possible improvements that may be implemented in their everyday work. Also, two games showing the relations between individual and mutual responsibility were staged. They were based on the idea of ‘the body system’ and the cooperation of all organs. Individuals during shift work underground are dependent on each other and responsible for one another’s safety and even life. The comparison with body organs functioning properly helped participants to understand the idea of cooperation and mutual responsibility. This part lasted for 3 hours. 3. Understanding and recognising the sources of motivation and self-management were facilitated through psychological questionnaires, discussion and working in small teams. In this module, participants analysed different sources of motivation such as intrinsic and extrinsic one, as well as some theories (e.g., Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 2013) Alderfer’s ERG (Alderfer, 2011), Herzberg’s hygiene and motivating factors and content theories (Herzberg et al., 1993)). The models were discussed on the basis of real-life examples of participants’ tasks. There were three games aimed at recognising one another’s motives, and two questionnaires to recognise individual Need for Achievement by McClelland (McClelland, 1987) and Herzberg’s hygiene and motivating factors for individuals and work teams (e.g. shifts). This part lasted for 4 hours. 4. Conflict solving techniques and leadership-related exercises were presented and practised in pairs and groups. This module started with a scale of individual conflict solving styles. Then the game based on a ‘prisoner’s dilemma’ was conducted in order to show what different strategies of conflict solving may lead to. At the end, an inventory of conflict solving techniques was presented and some were practised in groups, pairs or with a trainer. This part lasted for 4 hours.
The procedure
An intervention study following a quasi-experimental longitudinal design with a comparison group was used to evaluate the effects of the described soft-skill training according to the procedure presented in Figure 1. Procedure of the sequence of the study. Note. JCQ – Job Content Questionnaire, Mod OSI – Modified Occupational Stress Indicator; GHQ – General Health Questionnaire.
Employees from both groups completed their questionnaires before or after their work shifts between 2 and 3 p.m., which was arranged by a HR division due to organisational reasons, such as the access to conference rooms in which participants were able to complete their questionnaires. The completion time amounted to 10–20 minutes. After that, miners were asked to place them in a cardboard box or case. This was done to provide a feeling of anonymity, an important condition for improving the degree of honesty in their answers. All tests were completed correctly. This constituted the baseline design.
Soft-skills training sessions for the intervention group were held in four small groups, with two of them composed of 16 people and two others of 8 people, respectively. This was determined by the specific nature of the miners’ work (in 3 shifts) and was established by the company’s H&S specialists. Schedules were planned by the HR department of the mining company, as training sessions were designed to cover two days (two 8-hour-long meetings). Training sessions were conducted during regular working time, with attendance counting towards their monthly pay. However, most of the participants were highly motivated to take part in the course, perceiving it as a privilege, and showed considerable involvement during the sessions. The training was conducted by two certified trainers, one of whom was an occupational health psychologist.
The second administration of the psychological questionnaires was conducted after eight months from the baseline, and it was a few days after the completion of the soft-skills training by the intervention group, mostly after participants finished their day shifts (about 2 p.m.). The 8-month period originated from the long procedure of planning and organising the training sessions themselves, on account of the circumstances of shift work of the participants and problems with replacing them by other teams. The intervention group completed the psychological questionnaires a third time 3 months later. The 3-month follow-up for the intervention group was established of the basis of the analysis of other psychological interventions (Asare-Doku et al., 2020; King et al., 2005), as well as methodological recommendations (Guidi et al., 2018).
The participants from the comparison group completed their post test questionnaires along with the second measurement taken by the intervention group. However, the process of collecting all questionnaires from the comparison group took around 2 months, which was the result of shift work, with the main difficulty in reaching those workers who worked nights and could be approached only when their timetables changed.
The analytical strategy
The statistical analyses were conducted using Statistica 13.3. In order to test the effects of the intervention, a MANOVA was performed for the following dependent variables: Mod OSI, JCQ: decision latitude, psychological demands, job insecurity, social support from supervisors, social support from co-workers, and GHQ 28, with two factors: group (intervention vs. comparison) and time (pre-test vs post-test). Additionally, partial eta squared was used as an effect-size measure (Cohen, 1988). Additionally t-tests for variables were provided, separately for intervention and comparison groups to establish the significance of changes between baseline and post tests.
Results
Main intervention effects
Means and standard deviations in intervention and comparison groups.
Results of the MANOVA interaction statistics in intervention and comparison groups
Notes. Mod OSI – Modified Occupational Stress Indicator; JCQ – Job Content Questionnaire; GHQ – General Health Questionnaire.
A comparison of means with post hoc tests revealed that the intervention group experienced a significant decrease in stress level measured by Mod OSI, with no significant changes observed in the comparison group (see Table 2). Another observation was the significant increase for JCQ decision latitude, supervisor support as well as co-worker support. Multivariate analysis of group differences showed that participants from the intervention group experienced more significant increases in the level of control over stressful environment as well as in social support from supervisors and co-workers (see Table 2). Also, a significant relationship between time and group was found for the overall index of general health measured by GHQ 28 (see Table 2). A comparison of means with post hoc tests revealed that the intervention group experienced a significant decrease in complaints related to general health, while no significant changes were observed in the comparison group. These findings support both H1 and H2.
The t-tests for significant differences were provided for all variables in the intervention and comparison group between baseline and post tests. In the intervention group significant changes were noted in decision latitude (t = 3.76; df = 93; p = 0.000), supervisor support (t = −4.09; df = 93; p = 0.000), co-worker support (t = −3.43; df = 93; p = 0.000), also in Mod OSI (t = 4.70; df = 93; p = 0.000) and finally in GHQ (t = 4.46; df = 93; p = 0.000), as well as in three subscales of GHQ: anxiety and insomnia (t = 2.99; df = 93; p = 0.003), social dysfunction (t = 2.77; df = 93; p = 0.007), and depression (t = 6.15; df = 93; p = 0.000). In the comparison group changes in all variables checked twice (at baseline and post test) were not significant except co-worker support which decreased significantly (t = 2.37; df = 96; p = 0.020).
Longitudinal Effects of the Intervention
The intervention’s goal was to achieve longitudinal effects in reducing work-related stress. The third measurement of variables in the intervention group was conducted three months after the training. The results show the longitudinal effects for Mod OSI (F(2,92) =36.6, p = 0.000, η2 = 0.44), JCQ decision latitude (F(2,92) =15.3, p = 0.000, η2 = 0.25), support supervisor (F(2,92) =11.1, p < 0.010, η2 = 0.2), support co-worker (F(2,92) =6.35, p < 0.011, η2 = 0.12), and GHQ 28 (F(2,92) =11.2, p < 0.011, η2 = 0.2), (Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Longitudinal effects on Mod OSI in the intervention group. Note. Mod OSI – Modified Occupational Stress Indicator. Longitudinal effects on JCQ decision latitude in the intervention group. Note. JCQ - Job Content Questionnaire. Longitudinal effects on JCQ support from supervisors in the intervention group. Note. JCQ - Job Content Questionnaire. Longitudinal effects on JCQ support from co-workers in the intervention group. Note. JCQ - Job Content Questionnaire.
The first relationship concerns sources of stress measured by Mod OSI (Figure 2). Multivariate analysis with repeated measurements showed a significant decrease in work-related stress after the training and a slight increase after three months. This measurement is still lower than the measurement before the training. The longitudinal effect was maintained. Additionally, Mauchly’s test for sphericity was performed. The result: W = 0.91; p = 0.110 NS allowed for the acceptance of the results of F statistics.
The increase in decision latitude was maintained with significance. As shown in Figure 3, the increase of this variable is significant after the training and maintained over time. With their newfound ability to cope with stressful situations, participants were better equipped to deal with everyday tasks, also in terms of their responses to unexpected situations underground. Again, Mauchly’s test for sphericity was performed. The result was: W = 0.937; p = 0.211 NS, and again the changes were determined to be significant.
The increase in the level of perceived support from supervisors as well as from co-workers was also significant. This effect is stable over time in the case of perceived support from supervisors (Figure 4). Support from co-workers after three months decreased but was still significantly higher than before the training (Figure 5).
Additionally, Mauchly’s test for sphericity was performed. Both results, for supervisor support and co-worker support, were significant: W = 0.75; p < 0.001 (Support-S), W = 0.73; p = 0.000. The Greenhouse-Geisser correction factor was applied. The p-value 0.000 determined a statistically significant main effect.
The most important positive effect, which was stable even three months after the intervention, was the decrease of negative effects in work-related stress, such as somatic complaints, anxiety and insomnia, social dysfunction and depression. Perceived general health (negative symptoms decreased) was significantly better than before the intervention, and this effect persisted three months later (Figure 6). Mauchly’s test for sphericity was not significant (W = 0.93; p < 0.191). The main effect of changes between time measurements was significant. Longitudinal effects on general health in the intervention group. Note. GHQ - General Health Questionnaire.
On the basis of the results, H3 ‘A lower level of stress will be maintained 3 months after the training’ was supported. The general level of stress measured by modified OSI decreased, while individual autonomy and support increased. Also, H4 ‘A higher level of general health will be maintained 3 months after the training’ was supported. Psychological problems diagnosed by GHQ 28 decreased after the training and remained at a similarly low level after three months. Additionally, other positive results of the soft-skills training were confirmed on the basis of interviews with participants. For example, some miners reported improved communications and better conflict resolution skills with team members on shifts, as well as higher levels of mutual trust and responsibility.
Discussion
On the basis of the results of the intervention conducted, it was revealed that the level of work-related stress showed a significant decrease after the training. This can be explained by a shift in perception of peoples’ roles in the team. During training sessions, the participants were instructed how to react to conflict situations so as to eliminate misunderstandings; they learnt to clearly communicate their expectations and needs. The training allowed them to see themselves as members of a team where each individual’s contribution mattered. This perspective could enhance their sense of collective responsibility, followed by a lowered perception of negative stressors related to work conditions and work relations. Some training tasks contributed to the deepened feeling of mutual support, as well as, most likely, the feeling of being supported by the supervisor, which was evidenced by JCQ scores. The scores also suggest that a soft-skills training not only allows miners to develop skills for supporting others but also prevents the decrease of the co-workers support over time, which was noted in the comparison group and which might be the effect of poor communication and accumulated failures in conflict resolutions.
Through the exercises and games staged during the training modules, the participants could reflect on the importance of providing social support through open communication and team-oriented behaviour. According to theoretical models, such as the JD-C and HCM presented in the introduction, improving one’s skills, such as communication, conflict resolution, teamwork or self-management, is instrumental in the reduction of work-related stress, especially in the circumstances of teamwork. On the basis of the results showing a decrease in perceived stress and an increase in general health, one can support the hypotheses related to the positive influence of soft-skills training on stress reduction.
It is harder to explain why the training brought a spike in decision latitude. However, it is likely that self-management and leadership practice helped the participants better estimate their skills and increased their freedom in choosing how they manage their individual workstations. Yet, it is worth remembering that the baseline level of decision latitude was already relatively high. These results also provide recommendations to line managers and H&S specialists in the process of organizing shift work where teams are important, taking individual preferences for team roles into consideration whenever possible.
The general sense of well-being and overall health assessed with GHQ turned out to not only improve but also to last for three months. The lower rankings in all subscales measuring general health can be explained by the possible mitigating effects of lower stress levels and the sense of support from co-workers. This explanation is coherent with earlier studies (e.g., Ganster et al., 1986), which found that supervisor support was a key factor in bringing unwanted indicators in general health scales.
Conclusions
Work-related stress interventions provided to blue-collar workers are not very common, especially regarding training targeted at the development of soft skills or other psychological abilities. Because of this, the current findings require further verification. Nevertheless, this study may bring new evidence that custom soft-skills training is an effective way to reduce work-related stress, especially when the selection of specific skills follows not only from theoretical models but also from local needs analyses. This convergence of theoretical assumptions and environmental expectations might be considered an important contribution to both stress reduction research and practice. Additionally, interventions dedicated to manual labourers could bring significant economic benefits to organisations that suffer from high costs of job turnover, absenteeism and high accident rates.
In these professions, it might be crucial to focus on individual interventions which develop not only professional skills, such as dealing with explosives or operating mining machines, but also, even primarily, the skills that help in managing stress, supporting others and clearly communicating in life-threatening situations. This might be an important conclusion for further study and the application of general health interventions as a part of HCM in the mining sector.
It is worth mentioning that the copper mine which is the subject of this study, is the only one in Poland, and the organisational culture in terms of H&S was thoroughly analysed in order to design appropriate soft-skills training. The company is continually implementing a variety of programs aimed at improving health and safety procedures, such as occupational risk assessments and ergonomic improvements. The copper mine is also systematically extending and upgrading its machinery. However, interventions related to psychosocial and human factors are still rare, and interventions in the form of soft-skills development are perceived as needed in the company as well as in the entire mining sector. It would be worth investigating how H&S ergonomic interventions improve not only safety but also mental and physical health, and especially the strategies of coping with stress. Investigating the effectiveness of such interventions included in general HCM might be a step forward in the interdisciplinary approach for occupational psychology and management science.
Limitations of the Study
Despite the potential contributions of the present study, several limitations must be considered. First, with regard to the selection procedure, the participants in the intervention group were volunteers, not randomly chosen workers, which is not a standard procedure. Additionally, the group was very small (about 2% of the miners), which limits the possibilities when extrapolating these results to the whole sector or population (Proctor et al., 2011). However, it should be noted that the intervention triggered many discussions on mental and physical health inside the company, and in that sense, could have a substantial practical value.
Second, because of the problems related to the organization of shift work and scheduling of the intervention, the psychological questionnaires were collected over the course of many weeks, and the third measurement of the comparison group was not conducted at all, which could influence the interpretation of the results for both intervention and comparison groups. Despite the utmost effort in supervising the whole study according to best research practices, the researchers were not allowed to interrupt the extraction processes and intervene in organizational schedules. However, it was confirmed with mine authorities as well as HR specialists that there were no significant changes in the organization of work in the mine (managerial decisions, attitudes of workers) in the three months between post and follow-up measurements in the intervention group, so that the effects could be attributed to the intervention rather than other factors.
Third, because of the internal H&S procedures, the researchers were not allowed to conduct any observation of miners working underground (especially blasters), thus, it was impossible to assess the level of uptake of soft skills learnt in everyday work. In other words, the changes in self-perceptions of stress and general health were investigated, but the analysis of how soft skills were used before and after the training could not be done. This limitation could inspire further intervention evaluation projects in this sector. However, even if there was no evidence regarding the application of the skills in everyday work, the hypothesis of persisting stress reduction over a prolonged time span was supported. This study could contribute to the theory in demonstrating that skills once learned, may continue to influence the mechanism of stress reduction over time. Yet, from a practical point of view, this study is an example of individual-level intervention, which, according to the literature evaluating stress reduction interventions, tends to be less permanent than organizational ones. Thus, it remains to be studied whether the intervention can bring long-lasting improvements in employees’ well-being.
Finally, Human Capital Model is a complex model of the relationships related to general organizational behaviour and HR processes. Only the relation between soft skills and stress reduction was the main interest in this study based on the theoretical background (e.g. Peccei & Van De Voorde, 2019). However, other organizational, social and environmental variables still influenced the study subjects, which obviously might impact the results.
Key Points
Soft-skills training brings stress reduction for blue-collar workers in the mining sector Skill development interventions for dangerous jobs are beneficial for maintaining safety Skills once learned might influence stress reduction in a sustainable manner Human Capital Model might stimulate a positive organizational culture
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
This work is financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Poland under the programme “Regional Initiative of Excellence” 2019–2022 project number 015/RID/2018/19 total funding amount 10 721 040,00 PLN
