Looking out or Looking Away?—Exploring the Impact of Driving With a Passenger on Young Drivers’ Eye Glance Behavior

Abstract

Objective

To explore how passenger presence and the degree of association between young driver and passenger influences young drivers’ eye glance behavior when they are subjected to distraction.

Background

Young drivers (18–20 years old) are at an elevated crash risk when subjected to distraction. They are likely to be distracted even further when they drive with passengers. However, the eye glance behavior of these drivers when driving with passengers has not been explored.

Method

Eye glance data of 34 young drivers between the ages of 18 and 20 years were collected. Participants drove with and without a passenger while subjected to three distracting tasks (visual-manual, cognitive, or visual-cognitive) and driving scenarios that required driver attention.

Results

Visual-cognitive as well as visual-manual states of distraction result in higher mean and standard deviation of glance duration, along with higher number of glances away from road. Passenger presence is found to negatively influence young drivers’ eye glance behavior. The degree of association between the young driver and the passenger may help reduce the deviation of eye glances towards the task-related objects.

Conclusion

In addition to distraction, passengers have a negative influence on the eye glance behavior of young drivers. However, a high degree of association between driver and passenger may mitigate the negative impact of distraction on the eye glance behavior of young drivers.

Application (non-theoretical works)

This research may aid in the design of interventions that improve young drivers’ eye glance behavior when they drive with their peers.

Keywords

distraction driver behavior eye movements tracking simulations

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aldridge

Himmler

Aultman-Hall

Stamatiadis

(1999). Impact of passengers on young driver safety. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1693(1), 25-30. https://doi.org/10.3141/1693-05\\.

Angell

Auflick

Austria

P. a.

Kochhar

Tijerina

Biever

Kiger

(2006) Driver workload metrics project: Task 2 final report. (No. HS-810 635), 460.

Bao

Flannagan

Xiong

Sayer

(2014). Eye glance behavior associated with cell-phone use: Examination with naturalistic driving data. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 58th Annual Meeting, 58(1), 2112-2116. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541931214581444.

Bates

Maechler

(2008). Linear mixed-effects models using S4 classes. R package version 0.999375-22. http://cran.r-project.org.

Bingham

C. R.

Simons-Morton

B. G.

Pradhan

A. K.

Almani

Falk

E. B.

Shope

J. T.

Buckley

Ouimet

M. C.

Albert

P. S.

(2016). Peer passenger norms and pressure: Experimental effects on simulated driving among teenage males. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 41(A), 124-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2016.06.007.

Buckley

Chapman

R. L.

(2016). Characteristics of adolescents who intervene to stop the risky and dangerous behavior of their friends. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 88, 187-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2015.12.023.

Buckley

Davidson

(2013). A psychosocial model of young adult passengers’ intervening in unsafe driving of their friends. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 51, 98-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2012.10.015.

Carli

L. L.

(2001). Gender and social influence. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 725-741. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00238.

Cassarino

Murphy

(2018). Reducing young drivers’ crash risk: Are we there yet? An ecological systems-based review of the last decade of research. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 56, 54-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2018.04.003.

10.

Chan

Nyazika

Singhal

(2016). Effects of a front-seat passenger on driver attention: An electrophysiological approach. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 43, 67-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2016.09.016.

11.

Chein

Albert

O'Brien

Uckert

Steinberg

(2011). Peers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain’s reward circuitry. Developmental Science, 14(2), F1-F10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01035.x.

12.

Crundall

Bains

Chapman

Underwood

(2005). Regulating conversation during driving: A problem for mobile telephones? Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 8(3), 197-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2005.01.003.

13.

Deering

R. K.

(2002). Crash avoidance metrics partnership (CAMP) annual report.April 2001 - March 2002. (DOT HS 809 531)

14.

Dingus

T. A.

Neale

V. L.

Klauer

S. G.

Petersen

A. D.

Carroll

R. J.

(2006). The development of a naturalistic data collection system to perform critical incident analysis: An investigation of safety and fatigue issues in long-haul trucking. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 38(6), 1127-1136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2006.05.001.

15.

Divekar

(2012) External Distractions: Evaluation of their effect on younger novice and 2 experienced drivers’ behavior and vehicle control. 16.

16.

Doherty

S. T.

Andrey

J. C.

MacGregor

(1998). The situational risks of young drivers: The influence of passengers, time of day and day of week on accident rates. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 30(1), 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-4575(97)00060-2.

17.

Donmez

Boyle

L. N.

Lee

J. D.

(2007). Safety implications of providing real-time feedback to distracted drivers. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 39(3), 581-590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2006.10.003.

18.

Donmez

Liu

(2015). Associations of distraction involvement and age with driver injury severities. Journal of Safety Research, 52, 23-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2014.12.001.

19.

Doshi

Trivedi

M. M.

(2009). Head and gaze dynamics in visual attention and context learning. In 2009 IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, CVPR 2009, Miami, FL, USA, 20-25 June 2009, 77-84. https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR.2009.5204215.

20.

Drews

F. A.

Pasupathi

Strayer

D. L.

(2008). Passenger and cell phone conversations in simulated driving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 14(4), 392-400. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013119.

21.

Engström

Johansson

Östlund

(2005a). Effects of visual and cognitive load in real and simulated motorway driving. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 8(2 SPEC. ISS.), 97-120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2005.04.012.

22.

Fisher

D. L.

(2006). Can novice drivers be trained to scan for information that will reduce their likelihood of a crash? Injury Prevention, 12(suppl_1), i25-i29. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.2006.012021.

23.

Friard

Gamba

(2016). BORIS: A free, versatile open-source event-logging software for video/audio coding and live observations. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 7(11), 1325-1330. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12584.

24.

Gardner

Steinberg

(2005). Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: An experimental study. Developmental Psychology, 41(4), 625-635. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.625.

25.

Gershon

Sita

K. R.

Zhu

Ehsani

J. P.

Klauer

S. G.

Dingus

T. A.

Simons-Morton

B. G.

(2019). Distracted driving, visual inattention, and crash risk among teenage drivers. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 56(4), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2018.11.024.

26.

Hasselberg

Laflamme

(2009). How do car crashes happen among young drivers aged 18–20 years? Typical circumstances in relation to license status, alcohol impairment and injury consequences. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 41(4), 734-738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2009.03.012.

27.

Hoyle

R. H.

Stephenson

M. T.

Palmgreen

Lorch

E. P.

Donohew

R. L.

(2002). Reliability and validity of a brief measure of sensation seeking. Personality and Individual Differences, 32(3), 401-414. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00032-0.

28.

Kennedy

R. S.

Lane

N. E.

Berbaum

K. S.

Lilienthal

M. G.

(1993). Simulator sickness questionnaire: An enhanced method for quantifying simulator sickness. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 3(3), 203-220. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327108ijap0303_3.

29.

Kircher

Ahlström

(2017). The driver distraction detection algorithm AttenD. In Regan

M. A.

Lee

J. D.

Victor

T. W.

(eds.), Driver distraction and inattention (1st ed., pp. 327-348). https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315578156-23.

30.

Kircher

Kujala

Ahlström

(2019). On the difference between necessary and unnecessary glances away from the forward roadway: An occlusion study on the motorway. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 62(7), 001872081986694. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720819866946.

31.

Klauer

S. G.

Guo

Simons-Morton

B. G.

Ouimet

M. C.

Lee

S. E.

Dingus

T. A.

(2014). Distracted driving and risk of road crashes among novice and experienced drivers. New England Journal of Medicine, 370(1), 54-59. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1204142.

32.

Liang

Lee

J. D.

(2010). Combining cognitive and visual distraction: Less than the sum of its parts. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42(3), 881-890. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2009.05.001.

33.

Liang

Lee

J. D.

Yekhshatyan

(2012). How dangerous is looking away from the road? Algorithms predict crash risk from glance patterns in naturalistic driving. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 54(6), 1104-1116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720812446965.

34.

Mehrotra

S. K.

Zhang

Roberts

S. C.

(2018). Evaluation and validation of distraction detection algorithms on multiple data sources. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 62(1), 1949-1953. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541931218621442.

35.

Mendelson

M. J.

Aboud

F. E.

(1999). Measuring friendship quality in late adolescents and young adults: McGill friendship questionnaires. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 31(2), 130-132. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087080.

36.

National Center for Statistics and Analysis . (2019). Young drivers: 2017 dataTraffic safety facts. Report No. DOT HS 812 753

37.

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration . (2017). Teens distracted driver data. DOT HS, 812(667), 1.

38.

Neyens

D. M.

Boyle

L. N.

(2008). The influence of driver distraction on the severity of injuries sustained by teenage drivers and their passengers. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 40(1), 254-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2007.06.005.

39.

Ouimet

M. C.

Pradhan

A. K.

Brooks-Russell

Ehsani

J. P.

Berbiche

Simons-Morton

B. G.

(2015). Young drivers and their passengers: A systematic review of epidemiological studies on crash risk. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57(1), S24-S35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.03.010.

40.

Ouimet

M. C.

Pradhan

A. K.

Simons-Morton

B. G.

Divekar

Mehranian

Fisher

D. L.

(2013). The effect of male teenage passengers on male teenage drivers: Findings from a driving simulator study. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 58, 132-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2013.04.024.

41.

Ouimet

M. C.

Simons-Morton

B. G.

Zador

P. L.

Lerner

N. D.

Freedman

Duncan

G. D.

Wang

(2010). Using the U.S. national household travel survey to estimate the impact of passenger characteristics on young drivers’ relative risk of fatal crash involvement. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 42(2), 689-694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2009.10.017.

42.

Pollatsek

Fisher

D. L.

Pradhan

(2006). Identifying and remedying failures of selective attention in younger drivers. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 255-259. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00447.

43.

Pradhan

A. K.

Bingham

C. R.

Simons-Morton

B. G.

Ouimet

M. C.

Shope

J. T.

(2014). Peer passenger influences on male adolescent drivers’ visual scanning behavior during simulated driving. Journal of Adolescent Health, 54(5), S42-S49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.01.004.

44.

Preusser

D. F.

Ferguson

S. A.

Williams

A. F.

(1998). The effect of teenage passengers on the fatal crash risk of teenage drivers. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 30(2), 217-222. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-4575(97)00081-X.

45.

Regan

M. A.

Hallett

Gordon

C. P.

(2011). Driver distraction and driver inattention: Definition, relationship and taxonomy. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 43(5), 1771-1781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2011.04.008.

46.

Reimer

D'Ambrosio

L. A.

Gilbert

Coughlin

J. F.

Biederman

Surman

Fried

Aleardi

(2005). Behavior differences in drivers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: The driving behavior questionnaire. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 37(6), 996-1004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2005.05.002.

47.

Reimer

Gulash

Mehler

Foley

J. P.

Arredondo

Waldmann

(2014). The MIT AgeLab n-back: A multi-modal android application implementation. AutomotiveUI 2014 - 6th international conference on automotive user interfaces and interactive vehicular applications, in cooperation with ACM SIGCHI - adjunct proceedings, Seattle WA USA, 17 - 19 September 2014, 56-61. https://doi.org/10.1145/2667239.2667293.

48.

Ross

Jongen

E. M. M

Brijs

Wets

(2016). Investigating risky, distracting, and protective peer passenger effects in a dual process framework. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 93, 217-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2016.05.007.

49.

Shepherd

J. L.

Lane

D. J.

Tapscott

R. L.

Gentile

D. A.

(2011). Susceptible to social influence: Risky “driving” in response to peer pressure1: Social influence on risky driving. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41(4), 773-797. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00735.x.

50.

Simons-Morton

Chen

Abroms

Haynie

D. L.

(2004). Latent growth curve analyses of peer and parent influences on smoking progression among early adolescents. Health Psychology, 23(6), 612-621. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.23.6.612.

51.

Simons-Morton

B. G.

Cheon

Guo

Albert

(2013). Trajectories of kinematic risky driving among novice teenagers. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 51, 27-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2012.10.011\\.

52.

Simons-Morton

B. G.

Guo

Klauer

S. G.

Ehsani

J. P.

Pradhan

A. K.

(2014). Keep your eyes on the road: Young driver crash risk increases according to duration of distraction. Journal of Adolescent Health, 54(5), S61-S67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.11.021.

53.

Simons-Morton

B. G.

Ouimet

M. C.

Wang

Klauer

S. G.

Lee

S. E.

Dingus

T. A.

(2009). Hard braking events among novice teenage drivers by passenger characteristics. Proceedings of theInternational Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training, and Vehicle Design, 2009, 236-242. https://doi.org/10.17077/drivingassessment.1327.

54.

Smith

D. L.

Chang

Glassco

Foley

Cohen

(2005). Methodology for capturing driver eye glance behavior during in-vehicle secondary tasks. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1937(1), 61-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198105193700109.

55.

Sodhi

Reimer

Llamazares

(2002). Glance analysis of driver eye movements to evaluate distraction. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 34(4), 529-538. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195482.

56.

Steinberg

(2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Developmental Review, 28(1), 78-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002.

57.

Strayer

D. L.

Turrill

Cooper

J. M.

Coleman

J. R.

Medeiros-Ward

Biondi

(2015). Assessing cognitive distraction in the automobile. Human Factors, 57(8), 1300-1324. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720815575149.

58.

Victor

T. W.

(2005). Keeping eye and mind on the road. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis (9, pp. 83-64254). Uppsala. ISBM 91-554.Digital Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Social Sciences

59.

Wang

Bao

Sayer

J. R.

(2017). Examining drivers’ eye glance patterns during distracted driving: Insights from scanning randomness and glance transition matrix. Journal of Safety Research, 63, 149-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2017.10.006.

60.

Wentzel

K. R.

Filisetti

Looney

(2007). Adolescent prosocial behavior: The role of self-processes and contextual cues. Child Development, 78(3), 895-910. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01039.x.

61.

Zangemeister

W. H.

Stark

(1982). Types of gaze movement: variable interactions of eye and head movements. Experimental Neurology, 77(3), 563-577. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-4886(82)90228-x.

62.

Zhang

Mehrotra

Roberts

S. C.

(2018). Examining the effect of social influence on young drivers’ behavior. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 62(1), 1394-1398. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541931218621318.

63.

Zhang

Mehrotra

Roberts

S. C.

(2019). Driving distracted with friends: Effect of passengers and driver distraction on young drivers’ behavior. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 132, 105246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2019.07.022.