Objective: The aim of this study was to demonstrate how research on emotion in sport psychology might inform the field of human factors.
Background: Human factors historically has paid little attention to the role of emotion within the research on human-system relations. The theories, methods, and practices related to research on emotion within sport psychology might be informative for human factors because fundamentally, sport psychology and human factors are applied fields concerned with enhancing performance in complex, real-world domains.
Method: Reviews of three areas of theory and research on emotion in sport psychology are presented, and the relevancy of each area for human factors is proposed: (a) emotional preparation and regulation for performance, (b) an emotional trait explanation for risk taking in sport, and (c) the link between emotion and motor behavior. Finally, there are suggestions for how to continue cross-talk between human factors and sport psychology about research on emotion and related topics in the future.
Results: The relevance of theory and research on emotion in sport psychology for human factors is demonstrated.
Conclusion: The human factors field and, in particular, research on human-system relations may benefit from a consideration of theory and research on emotion in sport psychology.
Application: Theories, methods, and practices from sport psychology might be applied usefully to human factors.
Andrews F. M.Scientific productivity: The effectiveness of research groups in six countries. Andrews F. M., ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1979:253-289.
2.
Arthur W.,Young B.,Jordan J. A.,Shebilske W. L..Effectiveness of dyadic training protocols: The influence of training interaction anxiety.Human Factors. 1996;38:79-86
3.
Baldwin C. L.,Reagan I..Individual differences in route-learning strategy and associated working memory resources.Human Factors. 2009;51:368-377
4.
Bell P. A..Effects of noise and heat-stress on primary and subsidiary task-performance.Human Factors. 1978;20:749-752
5.
Berkun M. M..Performance decrement under psychological stress.Human Factors. 1964;6:21-30
6.
Biersner R. J..Motor and cognitive effects of cold water immersion under hyperbaric conditions.Human Factors. 1976;18:299-304
7.
Biersner R. J.,McHugh W. B.,Bennett L. K..Cognitive and emotional factors representative of reinforcement patterns among an amateur softball team.Human Factors. 1977;19:595-599
8.
Blanchette I.,Richards A..The influence of affect on higher level cognition: A review of research on interpretation, judgment, decision making and reasoning.Cognition and Emotion. 2010;24:561-595
9.
Boutcher S. H.,Zinsser N..Cardiac deceleration of elite and beginning golfers during putting.Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 1990;12:37-47
10.
Cacioppo J. T.,Priester J. R.,Berntson G. G..Rudimentary determinants of attitudes II: Arm flexion and extension have differential effects on attitudes.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1993;65:5-17
11.
Carayon P..Effect of electronic performance monitoring on job design and worker stress: Review of the literature and conceptual-model.Human Factors. 1993;35:385-395
12.
Carayon P.,Smith M. J.,Haims M. C..Work organization, job stress, and work-related musculoskeletal disorders.Human Factors. 1999;41:644-663
13.
Carstensen L. L.,Isaacowitz D. M.,Charles S. T..Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity.American Psychologist. 1999;54:165-181
14.
Carver C. S.,Scheier M. F.Attention and self-regulation: A control theory approach to human behavior. New York, NY: Springer Verlag; 1981:
15.
Cazenave N.,Le Scanff C.,Woodman T..Psychological profiles and emotional regulation characteristics of women engaged in risk-taking sports.Anxiety, Stress, and Coping. 2007;20:421-435
16.
Centerbar D. B.,Clore G. L..Do approach-avoidance actions create attitudes?.Psychological Science. 2006;17:22-29
17.
Chen M.,Bargh J. A..Nonconscious approach and avoidance behavioral consequences of the autonomic evaluation effect.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1999;25:215-224
18.
Clore G. L.,Huntsinger J. R..How emotions inform judgment and regulate thought.Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2007;11:393-399
19.
Coermann R. R.,Magid E. B.,Lange K. O..Human-performance under vibrational stress.Human Factors. 1962;4:315-324
20.
Cohen K.,Auld F.,Brooker H..Is alexithymia related to psychosomatic disorder and somatizing?.Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 1994;38:119-127
21.
Coombes S. A.,Cauraugh J. M.,Janelle C. M..Dissociating motivational direction and affective valence: Discrete emotions alter central motor processes.Psychological Science. 2007a;18:938-942
22.
Coombes S. A.,Cauraugh J. H.,Janelle C. M..Emotional state and initiating cue alter central and peripheral motor processes.Emotion. 2007b;7:275-284
23.
Coombes S. A.,Gamble K. M.,Cauraugh J. H.,Janelle C. M..Emotional states alter force control during a feedback occluded motor task.Emotion. 2008;8:104-113
24.
Coombes S. A.,Higgins T.,Gamble K. M.,Cauraugh J. H.,Janelle C. M..Attentional control theory: Anxiety, emotion, and motor planning.Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 2009;23:1072-1079
25.
Coombes S. A.,Janelle C. M.,Duley A. R..Emotion and motor control: Movement attributes following affective picture processing.Journal of Motor Behavior. 2005;37:425-436
26.
Corcos M.,Speranza M.Psychopathologie de l’alexithymie. Paris, France: Dunod; 2003:
27.
Davis N. J..Memory and coordination in bimanual isometric finger force production.Experimental Brain Research. 2007;182:137-142
28.
Deery H. A.,Fildes B. N..Young novice driver subtypes: Relationship to high-risk behavior, traffic accident record, and simulator driving performance.Human Factors. 1999;41:628-643
29.
Driskell J. E.,Cooper C.,Moran A..Does mental practice enhance performance?.Journal of Applied Psychology. 1994;79:481-491
30.
Driskell J. E.,Johnston J. H.,Salas E..Does stress training generalize to novel settings?.Human Factors. 2001;43:99-110
31.
Duval S.,Wicklund R. A.A theory of objective self-awareness. Oxford, UK: Academic Press; 1972:
32.
Eccles D. W.Handbook of measurement in sport and exercise psychology. Tenenbaum G.Eklund R. C.Kamata A., ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics;
33.
Eder A. B.,Rothermund K..When do motor behaviors (mis)match affective stimuli? An evaluative coding view of approach and avoidance reactions.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 2008;137:262-281
34.
Ellis R. D.,Allaire J. C..Modeling computer interest in older adults: The role of age, education, computer knowledge, and computer anxiety.Human Factors. 1999;41:345-355
35.
Evans L.,Wasielewski P.,von Buseck C. R..Compulsory seat belt usage and driver risk-taking behavior.Human Factors. 1982;24:41-48
36.
Eysenck M. W.,Calvo M. G..Anxiety and performance: The processing efficiency theory.Cognition and Emotion. 1992;6:409-434
37.
Eysenck M. W.,Derakshan N.,Santos R.,Calvo M..Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory.Emotion. 2007;7:336-353
38.
Farrin L.,Hull L.,Unwin C.,Wykes T.,David A..Effects of depressed mood on objective and subjective measures of attention.Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2003;15:98-104
39.
Fenichel O..The counter-phobic attitude.International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. 1939;20:263-274
40.
Fiore S. M.,Hoffman R. R.,Salas E..Learning and performance across disciplines: An epilogue for moving multidisciplinary research toward an interdisciplinary science of expertise.Military Psychology. 2008;:S155-S170
41.
Frank L. H.,Casali J. G.,Wierwille W. W..Effects of visual display and motion system delays on operator performance and uneasiness in a driving simulator.Human Factors. 1988;30:201-217
42.
Gable P. A.,Harmon-Jones E..Approach-motivated positive affect reduces breadth of attention.Psychological Science. 2008;19:476-482
43.
Galinsky T. L.,Rosa R. R.,Warm J. S.,Dember W. N..Psychophysical determinants of stress in sustained attention.Human Factors. 1993;35:603-614
44.
Gildea K. M.,Schneider T. R.,Shebilske W. L..Stress appraisals and training performance on a complex laboratory task.Human Factors. 2007;49:745-758
45.
Glasscock N. F.,Turville K. L.,Joines S. M. B.,Mirka G. A..The effect of personality type on muscle coactivation during elbow flexion.Human Factors. 1999;41:51-60
46.
Glover S..Separate visual representations in the planning and control of action.Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 2004;27:3-78
47.
Gomà-i-Freixanet M..Prosocial and antisocial aspects of personality.Personality and Individual Differences. 1995;19:125-134
48.
Gulian E.,Matthews G.,Glendon A. I.,Davies D. R.,Debney L. M..Dimensions of driver stress.Ergonomics. 1989;32:585-602
49.
Hajcak G.,Molnar C.,George M. S.,Bolger K.,Koola J.,Nahas Z..Emotion facilitates action: A transcranial magnetic stimulation study of motor cortex excitability during picture viewing.Psychophysiology. 2007;44:91-97
50.
Hall C. R.,Mack D.,Paivio A.,Hausenblas H. A..Imagery use by athletes: Development of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire.International Journal of Sport Psychology. 1998;29:73-89
51.
Hancock P. A.,Pepe A. A.,Murphy L. L..Hedonomics: The power of positive and pleasurable ergonomics.Ergonomics in Design. 2005;13 (1): 8-14
52.
Hancock P. A.,Warm J. S..A dynamic model of stress and sustained attention.Human Factors. 1989;31:519-537
53.
Hanin Y. L.Handbook of sport psychology. 3rd ed.Tenenbaum G.Eklund R. C., ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley; 2007:31-58.
54.
Hanton S.,Jones G..The acquisition and development of cognitive skills and strategies. I: Making the butterflies fly in formation.Sport Psychologist. 1999a;13:1-21
55.
Hanton S.,Jones G..The effects of a multimodal intervention program on performers. II: Training the butterflies to fly in formation.Sport Psychologist. 1999b;13:22-41
56.
Hardy L.,Jones G.,Gould D.Understanding psychological preparation for sport: Theory and practice of elite performers. Chichester, UK: Wiley; 1996:
57.
Helin P.,Sihvonen T.,Hänninen O..Timing of the triggering action of shooting in relation to the cardiac cycle.British Journal of Sports Medicine. 1987;21:33-36
58.
Advances in sport psychology. 3rd ed.Horn T. S., ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2008:
59.
Howell W. C..Human factors in the 1990s: Sealing transition cracks.Human Factors. 2008;50:354-358
60.
Keuning H.,Monné T. K.,Ijsselsteijn W. A.,Houtsma A. J. M..The form of augmented force-feedback fields and the efficiency and satisfaction in computer-aided pointing tasks.Human Factors. 2005;47:418-429
61.
Kim J.,Moon J. Y..Designing towards emotional usability in customer interfaces: Trustworthiness of cyber-banking system interfaces.Interacting With Computers. 1998;10:1-129
62.
Klein M. I.,Warm J. S.,Riley M. A.,Matthews G.,Gaitonde K.,Donovan J. F..Perceptual distortions produce multidimensional stress profiles in novice users of an endoscopic surgery simulator.Human Factors. 2008;50:291-300
63.
Lavender T.,Hommel B..Affect and action: Towards an event-coding account.Cognition and Emotion. 2007;21:1270-1296
64.
Lazarus R. S..How emotions influence performance in competitive sports.Sport Psychologist. 2000;14:229-252
65.
Le Scanff C.Les aventuriers de l’extrême. Paris, France: Calmann-Lévy; 2000:
66.
Lester L. F.,Bombaci D. H..The relationship between personality and irrational judgment in civil pilots.Human Factors. 1984;26:565-572
67.
Loehr J.,Schwartz T..The making of a corporate athlete.Harvard Business Review. 2001;:120-126
68.
Loo R..Individual-differences and perception of traffic signs.Human Factors. 1978;20:65-74
69.
Lumley M. A.,Stettner L.,Wehmer F..How are alexithymia and physical illness linked? A review and critique of pathways.Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 1996;41:505-518
70.
Martin K. A.,Hall C..Using mental imagery to enhance intrinsic motivation.Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 1995;17:54-69
71.
Masters R. S. W..Knowledge, (k)nerves and know-how: The role of explicit versus implicit knowledge in the breakdown of a complex motor skill under pressure.British Journal of Psychology. 1992;83:343-358
72.
Matthews G.,Dorn L.,Hoyes T. W.,Davies D. R.,Glendon A. I.,Taylor R. G..Driver stress and performance on a driving simulator.Human Factors. 1998;40:136-149
73.
Michel G.La prise de risque à l’adolescence: Pratique sportive et usage de substances psycho-actives. Paris, France: Masson; 2001:
74.
Milton J. G.,Solodkin A.,Hluštík P.,Small S. L..The mind of expert performance is cool and focused.NeuroImage. 2007;35:804-813
75.
Molesworth B. R. C.,Chang B..Predicting pilots’ risk-taking behavior through an implicit association test.Human Factors. 2009;51:845-857
76.
Moray N..The good, the bad, and the future: On the archeology of ergonomics.Human Factors. 2008;50:411-417
77.
Morgan B. B.,Winne P. S.,Dugan J..The range and consistency of individual-differences in continuous work.Human Factors. 1980;22:331-340
78.
Murphy L. R..A comparison of relaxation methods for reducing stress in nursing personnel.Human Factors. 1983;25:431-440
79.
Newell K. M.Motor development in children: Aspects of coordination and control. Wade M. G.Whiting H. T. A., ed. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff; 1986:341-360.
80.
Niedenthal P. M..Embodying emotion.Science. 2007;316:1002-1005
81.
Norman D. A.Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things. New York, NY: Basic Books; 2004:
82.
Orlick T.,Partington J..Mental links to excellence.Sport Psychologist. 1988;2:105-130
83.
Paivio A..Cognitive and motivational functions of imagery in human performance.Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences. 1985;10:22S-28S
84.
Parasuraman R.,Wickens C. D..Humans: Still vital after all these years of automation.Human Factors. 2008;50:511-520
85.
Pauley K. A.,O’Hare D.,Mullen N. W.,Wiggins M..Implicit perceptions of risk and anxiety and pilot involvement in hazardous events.Human Factors. 2008;50:723-733
86.
Ray N. M.,Minch R. P..Computer anxiety and alienation: Toward a definitive and parsimonious measure.Human Factors. 1990;32:477-491
87.
Regnier G.,Salmela J.World identification systems for gymnastic talent. Petiot B.Salmela J. H.Hoshizaki T. B., ed. New York, NY: Macmillan; 1987:143-150.
88.
Rogers W. A.,Fisk A. D.,McLaughlin A. C.,Pak R..Touch a screen or turn a knob: Choosing the best device for the job.Human Factors. 2005;47:271-288
89.
Roring R. W.,Hines F. G.,Charness N..Age-related identification of emotions at different image sizes.Human Factors. 2006;48:675-681
90.
Rusting C. L..Interactive effects of personality and mood on emotion-congruent memory and judgment.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1999;77:1073-1086
Scales R. H.Performance under stress. Hancock P. A.Szalma J. L., ed. Farnham, UK: Ashgate; 2008:xv-xvi.
93.
Shapiro R.,Siegel A. W.,Scovill L. C.,Hays J..Risk-taking patterns of female adolescents: What they do and why.Journal of Adolescence. 1998;21:143-159
94.
Shaver P.,Schwartz J.,Kirson D.,O’Conner C..Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1987;52:1061-1086
95.
Shinar D..Looks are (almost) everything: Where drivers look to get information.Human Factors. 2008;50:380-384
96.
Sifneos P. E.Topics of psychosomatic research. Freyberger H., ed. Basel, Switzerland: S. Karger; 1972:255-267.
97.
Simonton D. K..Scientific creativity as constrained stochastic behavior: The integration of product, person, and process perspectives.Psychological Bulletin. 2003;129:475-494
98.
Singer R. N.,Cauraugh J. H.,Murphy M.,Chen D.,Lidor R..Attentional control, distractors, and motor performance.Human Performance. 1991;4:55-69
99.
Stephan A.Emotions and bio-cultural processes. Rottger-Rossler B.Markowitsch H. J., ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2009:11-19.
100.
Szalma J. L.Performance under stress. Hancock P. A.Szalma J. L., ed. Farnham, UK: Ashgate; 2008:323-358.
101.
Szalma J. L..Individual differences in human-technology interaction: Incorporating variation in human characteristics into human factors and ergonomics research and design.Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science. 2009;10:381-397
102.
Szalma J. L.,Warm J. S.,Matthews G.,Dember W. N.,Weiler E. M.,Meier A.,Eggemeier F. T..Effects of sensory modality and task duration on performance, workload, and stress in sustained attention.Human Factors. 2004;46:219-233
103.
Taylor G. J.,Bagby R. M.,Parker J. D. A..The 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale IV. Reliability and factorial validity in different languages and cultures.Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 2003;55:277-283
104.
Taylor R. L.,Hamilton J. C..Preliminary evidence for the role of self-regulatory processes in sensation seeking.Anxiety, Stress, and Coping. 1997;10:351-375
105.
Thomas P. R.,Murphy S. M.,Hardy L..Test of performance strategies: Development and preliminary validation of a comprehensive measure of athletes’ psychological skills.Journal of Sports Sciences. 1999;17:697-711
106.
Trimmel M.,Meixner-Pendleton M.,Haring S..Stress response caused by system response time when searching for information on the Internet.Human Factors. 2003;45:615-621
107.
Van Orden K. F.,Benoit S. L.,Osga G. A..Effects of cold air stress on the performance of a command and control task.Human Factors. 1996;38:130-141
108.
Vicente K. J.,Hayes B. C.,Williges R. C..Assaying and isolating individual-differences in searching a hierarchical file system.Human Factors. 1987;29:349-359
109.
Whang M. C.,Lim J. S.,Boucsein W..Preparing computers for affective communication: A psychophysiological concept and preliminary results.Human Factors. 2003;45:623-634
110.
Woodman T.,Cazenave N.,Le Scanff C..Skydiving as emotion regulation: The rise and fall of anxiety is moderated by alexithymia.Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 2008;30:424-433
111.
Woodman T.,Davis P. A.,Hardy L.,Callow N.,Glasscock I.,Yuill-Proctor J..Emotions and sport performance: An exploration of happiness, hope, and anger.Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 2009;31:169-188
112.
Woodman T.,Hardy L.Handbook of sport psychology. 2nd ed.Singer R. N.Hausenblas H. A.Janelle C. M., ed. New York, NY: Wiley; 2001:290-318.
113.
Woodman T.,Huggins M.,Le Scanff C.,Cazenave N..Alexithymia determines the anxiety experienced in skydiving.Journal of Affective Disorders. 2009;116:134-138
114.
Woods D. D.,Sarter N. B.Cognitive engineering in the aviation domain. Sarter N. B.Amalberti R., ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 2000:327-353.
115.
Worchel S.,Shebilske W. L.,Jordan J. A.,Prislin R..Competition and performance on a computer-based complex perceptual-motor task.Human Factors. 1997;39:410-416
116.
Yerkes R. M.,Dodson J. D..The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit formation.Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology. 1908;18:459-482
117.
Zajonc R. B..Social facilitation.Science. 1965;149:269-274
118.
Zuckerman M..Sensation seeking and sports.Personality and Individual Differences. 1983;4:285-292
