Objective: This study examined whether benefits of conflict probe automation would occur in a future air traffic scenario in which air traffic service providers (ATSPs) are not directly responsible for freely maneuvering aircraft but are controlling other nonequipped aircraft (mixed-equipage environment). The objective was to examine how the type of automation imperfection (miss vs. false alarm) affects ATSP performance and attention allocation.
Background: Research has shown that the type of automation imperfection leads to differential human performance costs.
Method: Participating in four 30-min scenarios were 12 full-performance-level ATSPs. Dependent variables included conflict detection and resolution performance, eye movements, and subjective ratings of trust and self confidence.
Results: ATSPs detected conflicts faster and more accurately with reliable automation, as compared with manual performance. When the conflict probe automation was unreliable, conflict detection performance declined with both miss (25% conflicts detected) and false alarm automation (50% conflicts detected).
Conclusion: When the primary task of conflict detection was automated, even highly reliable yet imperfect automation (miss or false alarm) resulted in serious negative effects on operator performance.
Application: The further in advance that conflict probe automation predicts a conflict, the greater the uncertainty of prediction; thus, designers should provide users with feedback on the state of the automation or other tools that allow for inspection and analysis of the data underlying the conflict probe algorithm.
Bahner, J.E., Hüper, A.D., & Manzey, D. ( 2008). Misuse of automated decision aids: Complacency, automation bias and the impact of training experience. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 66, 688-699.
3.
Breznitz, S. ( 1983). Cry-wolf: The psychology of false alarms. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
4.
Castaño, D., & Parasuraman, R. (1999). Manipulation of pilot intent under free flight: A prelude to not-so-free flight. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 170-176). Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University.
5.
Corker, K., Fleming, K., & Lane, J. ( 1999). Measuring controller reactions to free flight in a complex transition sector. Journal of ATC, 4, 9-16.
6.
Dixon, S.R., & Wickens, C.D. ( 2006). Automation reliability in unmanned aerial vehicle flight control: Evaluating a reliance-compliance model of automation dependence in high workload. Human Factors, 48, 474-486.
7.
Dixon, S.R., Wickens, C.D., & McCarley, J.S. (2007). On the independence of compliance and reliance: Are automation false alarms worse than misses? Human Factors, 49, 564-572.
8.
Green, D.M., & Swets, J.A. ( 1988). Signal detection theory and psychophysics (2nd ed.). Los Altos, CA: Peninsula.
9.
Irwin, D.E. ( 2004). Fixation location and fixation duration as indices of cognitive processing. In J. M. Henderson & F. Ferreira (Eds.), The interface of language, vision, and action (pp. 105- 134). New York: Psychology Press.
10.
Joint Planning and Development Office. (2007 ). Concept of operations for the Next Generation of Air Transportation System: Version 2.0. Available from http://www.jpdo.gov/
11.
Lee, J.D., & Moray, N. ( 1992). Trust, control strategies and allocation of function in human-machine systems. Ergonomics, 35, 1243-1270.
12.
Lee, J.D., & Moray, N. ( 1994). Trust, self-confidence, and operators’ adaptation to automation. International Journal of Human Computer Studies , 40, 153-184.
13.
Lees, N., & Lee, J.D. ( 2007). The influence of distraction and driving context on driver response to imperfect collision warning systems. Ergonomics , 50, 1264-1286.
14.
Lorenz, B., Di Nocera, F., Röttger, S., & Parasuraman, R. (2002). Automated fault management in a simulated space flight microworld. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 73, 886-897.
15.
Maltz, M., & Shinar, D.2003, New alternative methods in analyzing human behavior in cued target acquisition. Human Factors, 45, 281-295.
16.
Masalonis, A.J., Le, M.A., Klinge, J.C., Galster, S.M., Duley, J.A., Hancock, P.A., . . . Parasuraman, R. (1997). Air traffic control workstation mock-up for Free Flight experimentation: Lab development and capabilities . In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 41st Annual Meeting (p. 1379). Santa Monica, CA : Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
17.
Metzger, U., & Parasuraman, R. (2001). The role of the air traffic controller in future air traffic management: An empirical study of active vs. passive monitoring. Human Factors, 43, 519-528.
18.
Metzger, U., & Parasuraman, R. (2005). Automation in future air traffic management: Effects of decision aid reliability on controller performance and mental workload. Human Factors, 47, 35-49.
19.
Metzger, U., Rovira, E., & Parasuraman, R. (2003). Controller performance, workload and attention allocation in distributed airground traffic management: Effects of mixed equipage and decision support. In Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 803-809). Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University.
20.
Meyer, J. ( 2001). Effects of warning validity and proximity on responses to warnings. Human Factors, 43, 563-572.
21.
Meyer, J. ( 2004). Conceptual issues in the study of dynamic hazard warnings . Human Factors, 46, 196-204.
22.
Moray, N., & Inagaki, T. ( 2000). Attention and complacency. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 1, 354-365.
23.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. ( 1999). Concept definition for distributed air/ground traffic management (DAG-TM): Version 1.0. Advanced Air Transportation Technologies (AATT) Project, Aviation System Capacity (ASC) Program. Available from http://www.asc.nasa.gov/aatt/dag.html
24.
National Transportation Safety Board. (2006 ) National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Safety Recommendation A-06-44-A-06-47. Washington, DC: Author.
25.
Nunes, A., & Scholl, B.J., (2004). Interactions between convergence angle, traffic load, and altitude distribution in air traffic control. In D. A. Vincenzi , M. Mouloua, & P. A. Hancock (Eds.), Human performance, situation awareness and automation: Current research and trends (pp. 180-185). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
26.
Parasuraman, R., Hilburn, B., & Hoeskstra, J. (2001). Free flight. In W. Karwowski (Ed.), International encyclopedia of ergonomics and human factors (pp. 1005-1008). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.
27.
Parasuraman, R., Molloy, R., & Singh, I.L. ( 1993). Performance consequences of automation-induced "complacency."International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 3, 1-23.
28.
Parasuraman, R., Sheridan, T.B., & Wickens, C.D. ( 2000). A model for types and levels of human interaction with automation. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics- Part A: Systems and Humans, 30, 286-297.
29.
Parasuraman, R., & Wickens, C.D. ( 2008). Humans: Still vital after all these years of automation . Human Factors, 50, 511-520.
30.
Prevot, T., Homola, J., Mercer, J., Mainini, M., & Cabrall, C. ( 2009). Initial evaluation of NextGen air/ground operations with ground-based automated separation assurance. In Proceedings of the 8th USA/Europe Air Traffic Management Research and Development Seminar. Available from http://www.atmseminar.org/8th-seminar-united-states-june-2009/papers/paper_138/view
31.
Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics. ( 1995). Report of the RTCA Board of Directors Select Committee on Free Flight. Washington, DC: Author.
32.
Wickens, C.D., & Dixon, S.R. ( 2005). Is there a magic number 7 (to the minus 1)? The benefits of imperfect diagnostic automation: A synthesis of the literature (Tech. Rep. No. AHFD-05-01/ MAAD-05-1). Savoy: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Institute of Aviation, Human Factors Division.
33.
Wickens, C.D., Mavor, A.S., & McGee, J.P. (1997). Flight to the future: Human factors in air traffic control. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
34.
Wickens, C.D., Mavor, A.S., Parasuraman, R., & McGee, J.P. (1998). The future of air traffic control: Human operators and automation. Washington, DC : National Academy Press.
35.
Wickens, C.D., Rice, S., Keller, D., Hutchins, S., Hughes, J., & Clayton, K. ( 2009). False alerts in air traffic control conflict alerting system: Is there a "cry wolf" effect?Human Factors, 51, 446-462.
