Despite new technology and pharmacological agents, postoperative nausea and vomiting continues to have a 20% to 30% occurrence rate. New antiemetic drugs and improved anesthetic techniques have decreased the incidence of anesthesia-induced postoperative nausea and vomiting. Patient characteristics and surgical factors are now largely responsible for postoperative emesis. Postoperative nausea and vomiting can lead to serious complications such as aspiration, dehydration, electrolyte disturbances, and disruption of the incision site. Postoperative nausea and vomiting leads to increased direct and indirect costs and may be associated with patients' dissatisfaction with the surgical experience. Nonpharmacological and pharmacological treatments, including new antiemetic drugs, have decreased the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting. However, clinical trials are needed to determine the most suitable treatments for the most common causes of postoperative nausea and vomiting.
KallarS.K.New modalities in postoperative nausea and vomiting.J Clin Anaesth.1992; 4(suppl 1): 16s–19s.
2.
NaylorR.J., InallF.C.The physiology and pharmacology of postoperative nausea and vomiting.Anaesthesia.1994; 49(suppl): 2–5.
3.
American Society of Health-System Pharmacist.ASHP therapeutic guidelines on the pharmacologic management of nausea and vomiting in adult and pediatric patients receiving chemotherapy or radiation therapy or undergoing surgery.Am J Health Syst Pharm.1999; 56: 729–64.
4.
WatchaM.F., WhiteP.F.Postoperative nausea and vomiting.Anesthesiology.1992; 77: 162–84.
5.
HirschJ.Impact of postoperative nausea and vomiting in the surgical setting.Anesthesia.1994; 49(suppl): 30–3.
6.
WhiteP., ShaferA.Nausea and vomiting: Causes and prophylaxis.Sem Anesth.1987; 4: 300–8.
7.
BorisonH.L., McCarthyL.E.Neuropharmacology of chemotherapy-induced emesis.Drugs.1983; 25(suppl 1): 8–17.
8.
SeigelL.J., LongoD.L.The control of chemotherapy-induced emesis.Ann Intern Med.1981; 95: 352–7.
9.
HillR.P., LubarskyD.A., Phillips-ButeB.Cost-effectiveness of prophylactic antiemetic therapy with ondansetron, droperidol, or placebo.Anesthesiology.2000; 92: 958–67.
10.
WatchaM.F.The cost-effective management of postoperative nausea and vomiting.Anesthesiology.2000; 92: 931–3.
11.
LarsonP., HalliburtonP., DiJulioJ.Nausea, vomiting, and retching. Pathophysiological Phenomena in Nursing.2nd ed.Philadelphis: W.B. Saunders; 1993, 371–94.
12.
BlinkhorneK.Prepared for a smooth recovery?Nursing Times.1995; 91: 42–4.
FahyA., MarshallM.Postanaesthetic morbidity in out-patients.Br J Anaesth.1969; 41: 433–8.
23.
BroomheadC.J.Physiology of postoperative nausea and vomiting.Br J Hosp Med.1995; 53: 327–30.
24.
BroomheadC.J.Reducing the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting.Br J Hosp Med.1995; 53: 511–2.
25.
LarssonS., LundbergL.A prospective survey of postoperative nausea and vomiting with special regard to incidence and relations to patient characteristics, anesthetic routines, and surgical procedures.Acta Anesthesiol Scand.1995; 39: 339–45.
26.
AndrewsP.L.Physiology of nausea and vomiting.Br J Anaesth.1992; 69(suppl 1): 2s–19s.
27.
NimmoW.S.Effect of anaesthesia on gastric motility and emptying.Br J Anaesth.1984; 56: 29–35.
28.
RubinA., WinstonJ.The role of the vestibular apparatus in the production of nausea and vomiting following the administration of morphine to man.J Clin Invest.1950; 29: 1261–6.
29.
PanditS.K., KotharyS.P.Intravenous narcotics for premedication in outpatient anaesthesia.Acta Anaesthesiol Scand.1989; 33: 353–8.
30.
RabeyP.G., SmithG.Anaesthetic factors contributing to postoperative nausea and vomiting.Br J Anaesth.1992; 69(suppl 1): 40s–45s.
31.
CadeL., RossA.W.Is fentanyl effective for postoperative analgesia in day-surgery?Anaesth Intensive Care.1992; 20(1): 38–40.
32.
KorttilaK., TammistoT., AromaaU.Comparison of etomidate in combination with fentanyl or diazepam, with thiopentone as an induction agent for general anesthesia.Br J Anaesth.1979; 51: 1151–7.
33.
ThompsonG.E., RemingtonJ.M., MilmanB.S.Experiences with outpatient anesthesia.Anesth Analg.1973; 52: 881–7.
34.
KorttilaK.Propofol: An update.Curr Opinion Anesthesiol.1990; 3: 559–63.
35.
ClarkeR.S.J.Nausea and vomiting.Br J Anaesth.1984; 56: 16–27.
36.
CarterJ.A., DyeA.M., CooperG.M.Recovery after day-case anaesthesia. The effect of different inhalational anaesthetic agents.Anaesthesia.1985; 40: 545–8.
37.
TramerM., MooreA., McQuayH.Propofol anaesthesia and postoperative nausea and vomiting: Quantitative systematic review of randomized controlled studies.Br J Anesth.1997; 78: 247–55.
38.
KnappM.R., BeecherH.K.Postoperative nausea and vomiting and retching.JAMA.1956; 160: 376–85.
39.
RaphaelJ.H., NortonA.C.Antiemetic efficacy of prophylactic ondansetron in laparoscopic surgery: Randomized, double-blind comparison with metoclopramide.Br J Anaesth.1993; 71: 845–8.
40.
HawthronJ.Understanding and Management of Nausea and Vomiting.Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science; 1995.
41.
AndersenR., KrohgK.Pain as a major cause of nausea.Can Anaesth Soc J.1976; 23: 366–9.
Van den BergA.A., LambourneA., YazhN.S.Vomiting after ophthalmic surgery.Anaethesia.1987; 42: 270–6.
44.
JefferyK.M., HarkinsB., CresciG.A.The clear liquid diet is no longer a necessity in the routine postoperative management of surgical patients.Am Surg.1996; 62: 167–71.
45.
HoughM.P., WaugamanW.R.Ketorolac and propofol administration for prevention of nausea and vomiting in patients undergoing minor gynecologic surgery.Nurs Anesth.1993; 4: 9–17.
46.
BartonC.R., ElliotC.Ketorolac as a preoperative nonnarcotic analgesic to enhance anesthesia and postanesthesia recovery.Nurse Anesth.1992; 3: 125–31.
47.
GreenC.R., PanditS.K., LevyL.Intraoperative ketorolac has an opioidsparing effect in women after diagnostic laparoscopy but not after laparoscopic tubal ligation.Anesth Analg.1996; 78: 732–7.
48.
WongH.Y., CarpenterR.L., KopaczD.J.A randomized, double-blind evaluation of ketorolac tromethamine for postoperative analgesia in ambulatory surgery patients.Anesthesiology.1993; 78: 6–14.
49.
WhiteP.F.Management of postoperative pain and emesis.Can J Anaesth.1995; 42: 1053–5.
50.
WatchaM.F., JonesM.B., LagueruelaR.G.Comparison of ketorolac and morphine in adjuvants during pediatric surgery.Anesthesiology.1992; 76: 368–72.
51.
SleisengerM.H.The Handbook of Nausea and Vomiting.New York, NY: Caduceus Medical Publishers; 1993.
52.
CrambR., Fargas-BabjakA., HiranoG.Intraoperative prochlorperazine for prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting.Can J Anaesth.1989; 36(5): 565–7.
53.
HoR.T., JawanB., FungS.T.Electro-acupuncture and postoperative emesis.Anaesthesia.1989; 45: 327–9.
54.
KhalilS., PhilbrookL., RabbM.Ondansetron/promethazine combination or promethazine alone reduces nausea and vomiting after middle ear surgery.J Clin Anesth.1999; 11: 596–600.
55.
PorterJ., JickH.Drug-induced anaphylaxis, convulsions, deafness and extrapyramidal symptoms.Lancet.1977; i: 587–8.
56.
BatemanD.N., RawlinsM.D., SimpsonJ.M.Extrapyramidal reactions to prochlorperazine and haloperidol in the United Kingdom.Q J Med.1986; 59(230): 549–56.
57.
RichterJ.J.Current theories about the mechanisms of benzodiazepines and neuroleptic drugs.Anesthesiology.1981; 54: 66–72.
58.
WilliamsO.A., ClarkeF.L., HarrisR.W.Addition of droperidol to patient-controlled analgesia: Effect on nausea and vomiting.Anaesthesia.1993; 48: 881–4.
59.
LimK.S., LimB.L., TeeC.S.Nausea and vomiting after termination of pregnancy as day surgery cases: Comparison of three different doses of droperidol and metoclopramide as antiemetic prophylaxis.Singapore Med J.1991; 32: 342–3.
60.
RowbothamD.J.Current management of postoperative nausea and vomiting.Br J Anaesth.1992; 69(suppl 1): 46s–59s.
61.
MorrisonJ.D., ClarkeR.S., DundeeJ.W.Studies of drugs given before anesthesia XXI: Droperidol.Br J Anaesth.1970; 42: 730–5.
62.
DentS.J., RamachandraV., StephenC.R.Postoperative vomiting: Incidence, analysis and therapeutic measures in 3000 patients.Anesthesiology.1955; 16: 564–72.
63.
MooreD.C., BridenbaughL.D., PiccioniV.F.Control of postoperative vomiting with marezine: A double-blind study.Anesthesiology.1956; 17(5): 690–5.
64.
BellvilleJ.W., BrossI.D.J., HowlandW.S.The antiemetic efficacy of cyclizine (Marezine) and triflupromazine (Vesprin).Anesthesiology.1959; 20: 761–6.
65.
HandleyA.J.Metoclopramide in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting.Br J Clin Pract.1967; 9: 460–2.
66.
EllisF.R., SpenceA.A.Clinical trials of metoclopramide (Maxolon) as an antiemetic in anaesthesia.Anaesthesia.1970; 25(3): 368–71.
67.
AssafR.A.E., ClarkeR.S.J., DundeeJ.W.Studies of drugs given before anaesthesia XXIV: Metoclopramide with morphine and pethidine.Br J Anaesth.1974; 46: 514–9.
68.
CohenS.E., WoodsW.A., WynerJ.Antiemetic efficacy of droperidol and metoclopramide.Anesthesiology.1984; 60(1): 67–9.
69.
BoneM.E., WilkinsonD.J., YoungJrGinger root — a new antiemetic: The effect of ginger root on postoperative nausea and vomiting after major gynaecological surgery.Anaesthesia.1990; 45: 669–71.
70.
DominoK.B., AndersonE.A., PolissarN.L.Comparative efficacy and safety of ondansetron, droperidol, and metoclopramide for preventing postoperative nausea and vomiting: A meta-analysis.Anesth Analg.1999; 88: 1370–9.
71.
HenziI., TramerM.R.Metoclopramide in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: A quantitative systematic review of randomized, placebo-controlled studies.Br J Anaesth.1999; 83: 761–71.
72.
MalinsA.F., FieldJ.M., NeslingP.M.Nausea and vomiting after gynaecological laparoscopy: Comparison of premedication with oral ondansetron, metoclopramide and placebo.Br J Anaesth.1994; 74: 231–3.
73.
WhalleyD.G., AlHaddadS., KhalilI.Metoclopramide does not decrease the incidence of nausea and vomiting after alfentanil for outpatient anaesthesia.Can J Anaesth.1991; 38(8): 1023–7.
74.
DesilvaP.H., DarvishA.H., McDonaldS.M.The efficacy of prophylactic ondanstron, droperidol, perphenazine, and metoclopramide in the prevention of nausea and vomiting after major gynecologic surgery.Anesth Analg.1995; 81: 139–43.
75.
PaxtonL.D., McKayA.C., MirakhurR.K.Prevention of nausea and vomiting after day case gynecological laparoscopy: A comparison of ondansetron, droperidol, metoclopramide and placebo.Anesthesia.1995; 50: 403–6.
76.
KorttilaK., KausteA., AuvinenJ.Comparison of domperidone, droperidol, and metoclopramide in the prevention and treatment of nausea and vomiting after balanced general anesthesia.Anesth Analg.1979; 58: 396–400.
77.
KymerP.J., BrownR.E.JrLawhornC.D.The effects of oral droperidol vs oral metoclopramide versus both oral droperidol and metoclopramide on post-operative vomiting when used as a pre-medicant for strabismus surgery.J Clin Anesth.1995; 7: 35–9.
78.
British National Formulary No 31. British Medical Association and The Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.
79.
BrogdenR.N., CarmineA.A., HeelR.C.Domperidone: A review of its pharmacological activity, pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy in the symptomatic treatment of chronic dyspepsia and as an antiemetic.Drugs.1982; 24: 360–400.
80.
HarrisS.N., SevarinoB., SinatraR.S.Nausea prophylaxis using transdermal scopolamine in the setting of patient-controlled analgesia.Obstet Gynecol.1991; 78(4): 673–7.
81.
DoyleE., ByersG., McNicholL.R.Prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting with transdermal hyoscine in children using patient-controlled analgesia.Br J Anaesth.1994; 72: 72–6.
82.
CroninC.M., SallanS.E., WolfeL.Transdermal scopolamine in motion sickness.Pharmacotherapy.1982; 2(1): 29–31.
83.
CissoldS.P., HeelR.Transdermal hyoscine (scopolamine): A preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic properties and therapeutic efficacy.Drugs.1985; 29: 189–207.
84.
ChaffeeB.J., TankanowR.M.Ondansetron: The first of a new class of antiemetic agents.Clin Pharm.1991; 10: 430–45.
85.
AllanS.G.Antiemetics.Gastrorenterol Clin North Am.1992; 21(3): 597–610.
86.
CastelW.M., JukesA.J., GriffithsC.J.Safety of ondansetron.Eur J Anesthesiology.1992; 9(suppl 6): 63–6.
87.
DershwitzM., RosowC.E., Di BiaseP.M.Ondansetron is effective in decreasing postoperative nausea and vomiting.Clin pharmacol Ther.1992; 52(1): 96–101.
88.
Du PenS., ScuderiP., WelchlerB.Ondansetron in the treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting in ambulatory outpatients: A dose-comparative, stratified, multicenter study.Eur J Anesthesiol.1992; 9(suppl 6): 55–62.
89.
KovacA., McKenzieR., O'ConnorT.Prophylactic intravenous ondansetron in female outpatients undergoing gynaecological surgery: A multicenter dose-comparison study.Eur J Anaesthesiol.1992; 9(suppl 6): 37–47.
90.
ScuderiP., WetcherB., SungY.F.Treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting after outpatient surgery with the 5-HT3 antagonist ondansetron.Anesthesiology.1993; 78(1): 15–20.
91.
JoslynA.F.Ondansetron clinical development for postoperative nausea and vomiting: Current studies and future directions.Anaesthesia.1994; 49(suppl): 34–7.
92.
KorttilaK., ClergueF., LeeserJ.Intravenous dolasetron and ondansetron in prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: A multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.Acta Anaesthesiol Scand.1997; 41: 914–22.
93.
HelmyS.A.Prophylactic antiemetic efficacy of ondansetron in laparoscopic cholecystectomy under total intravenous anaesthesia: A randomized, double-blind comparison with droperidol, metoclopramide, and placebo.Anaesthesia.1999; 54: 266–71.
de AloysioD., PenacchioniP.Morning sickness control in early pregnancy by Neiguan point acupressure.Obstet Gynecol.1992; 80(5): 852–4.
96.
HillsJ.M., AaronsonP.I.The mechanism of action of peppermint oil on gastrointestinal smooth muscle.Gastroenterology.1991; 101: 55–65.
97.
TaylorB.A., LuscombeD.K., DuthieH.L.Inhibitory effect of peppermint oil and menthol on human isolated coli.Gut.1984; 25: A1168–9.
98.
TateS.D.The efficacy of peppermint oil as a treatment for postoperative nausea and vomiting.Manchester Victoria University: unpublished MSc dissertation; 1995.
