This study compares US news magazine coverage of conflict occurring in Bosnia and Rwanda. Bosnia's violence was characterized as an aberration for Europeans, while Rwanda's violence was presented as typical of Africans. Coverage suggests that in Bosnia, participants made a logical, albeit evil, decision to commit violence in an attempt to seek revenge for past grievances. In contrast, Rwanda's violence is depicted as having no logical explanation and is portrayed as irrational and so alien from Western understanding as to defy explanation.
Ajami, F. (1992) `Remembrance of Things Past', US News and World Report17 August: 9.
2.
Bell-Fialkoff, A. (1996) Ethnic Cleansing. New York: St Martin's Press.
3.
Breslau, K. (1992a) `Life Among the Ruins; Saravejo's War-Weary Residents Learn to Cope', Newsweek20 July: 48.
4.
Breslau, K. (1992b) `When Marriage is Sleeping with the Enemy', Newsweek5 October: 52-53.
5.
Breslau, K. , T. Stanger, J. Brand and M. Meyer (1992) `The Push for National Purity; The Widening Yugoslav Civil War Enters a New and Ugly Phase of “Ethnic Cleansing” ', Newsweek3 August: 36-37.
6.
Brock, L. (1992) `Inkatha: Notions of the “Primitive” and “Tribal” in Reporting on South Africa', pp. 149-161 in B. Hawk (ed.) Africa's Media Image. New York: Praeger.
7.
Buckman, R. T. (1993) `How Eight Weekly Newsmagazines Covered Elections in Six Countries', Journalism Quarterly70(4): 780-793.
8.
Chabal, P. (1996) `The African Crisis: Context and Interpretation', pp. 29-54 in R. Werbner and T. O. Ranger (eds) Postcolonial Identities in Africa. London: Zed Books.
9.
Chossudovsky, M. (1995) `IMF and World Bank Set the Stage', Covert Action Quarterly52: 11.
Church, G. (1992) `Munich All Over Again? Talks on a Settlement in Bosnia Sound Uncomfortably Reminiscent of the 1938 Surrender to Aggression', Time31 August: 48.
12.
Cohen, B. (1963) The Press and Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
13.
Douglas, S. (1994) `A Three-Way Failure', The Progressive58(7): 15.
14.
Douglas, S. (1996) `Double Standards', The Progressive60(1): 17.
15.
Entman, R. (1991) `Framing US Coverage of International News: Contrasts in Narratives of the KAL and Iran Air Incidents', Journal of Communication41(4): 6-27.
16.
Entman, R. (1993) `Framing: Toward a Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm', Journal of Communication43(4): 51-58.
17.
Fair, J.E. (1992) `Are We the World?', pp. 3-14 in B. Hawk (ed.) Africa's Media Image. New York: Praeger.
18.
Fair, J. E. (1993) `War, Famine and Poverty: Race in the Construction of Africa's Media Image', Journal of Communication Inquiry17(2): 5-23.
19.
Fair, J. E. and R. J. Astroff (1991) `Constructing Race and Violence: US News Coverage and the Signifying Practices of Apartheid', Journal of Communication41(4): 58-74.
20.
`France: A Duty to Halt the Killings' (1994) US News and World Report27 June: 12.
21.
Galtung, J. and H. Ruge (1965) `The Structure of Foreign News', Journal of Peace Research2(1): 64-91.
22.
Gamson, W. and K. E. Lasch (1983) `The Political Culture of Social Welfare Policy', pp. 397-415 in S. E. Spiro and E. Yaar (eds) Evaluating the Welfare State. New York: Academic Press.
23.
Gamson, W. and A. Modigliani (1989) `Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructivist Approach', American Journal of Sociology95(1): 1-37.
24.
Gans, H. (1979) Deciding What's News. New York: Pantheon.
25.
Gervasi, S. (1992-3) `Germany, US, and the Yugoslav Crisis', Covert Action Quarterly43:1-45, 64-66.
26.
Gibbs, N. (1994) `Why? The Killing Fields of Rwanda: Hundreds of Thousands Have Died or Fled as a Result of Tribal Strife', Time16 May: 56-63.
27.
Govea, R. (1992) `Reporting African Violence: Can America Forget the Cold War?', pp. 94-108 in B. Hawk (ed.) Africa's Media Image. New York: Praeger.
28.
Graff, J. L. (1992a) `The Butcher of the Balkans; Sly, Intelligent and Ruthless, Slobodan Milosevic is Acting Out a Fantasy of Power in Yugoslavia that So Far Knows No Bounds', Time8 June: 37-38.
29.
Graff, J. L. (1992b) `Guns Now, Butter Later; Relief Flights are Bringing Aid, But That is Not Enough to Assuage the Anger Building in Sarajevo', Time20 July: 68.
30.
Hachten, W. A. (1992) The World News Prism. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
31.
Hackworth, D. (1992) `The Wasteland; The Balkan Conflict isn't War; It's Indiscriminate Slaughter with No Logic and No Winners. A Veteran Soldier Offers a Journal of the Quagmire', Newsweek14 September: 42-43.
32.
Hadar, L. (1994) `Covering the New World Disorder: The Press Rushes in Where Clinton Fears to Tread', Columbia Journalism ReviewJuly/August: 26-29.
33.
Halliday, J. , S. C. Jansen and J. Schneider (1992) `Framing the Crisis in Eastern Europe', pp. 3-78 in M. Raboy and B. Dagenais (eds) Media, Crisis and Democracy: Mass Communication and the Disruption of the Social Order. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
34.
Hallin, D. , R. K. Manoff and J.K. Weddle (1993) `Sourcing Patterns of National Security Reporters', Journalism Quarterly70(4): 753-766.
35.
Hammer, J. (1994a) `Escape from Hell', Newsweek16 May: 34-35.
36.
Hammer, J. (1994b) `Death Watch; Rwanda: A Diary of One Day's Horrors in the Refugee Camp at Kibumba', Newsweek8 August: 15-17.
37.
Hammer, J. , T. Stanger and R. Sparkman (1994) `Deeper into the Abyss: An Orgy of Tribal Slaughter Kills Thousands as Most of the Foreigners Flee for Their Lives', Newsweek25 April: 32.
38.
Hawk, B. (1992) `Introduction: Metaphors of African Coverage', pp. 3-14 in B. Hawk (ed.) Africa's Media Image. New York: Praeger.
39.
Herman, E. and N. Chomsky (1988) Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York: Praeger.
40.
Hess, S. (1996) `Media Mavens; Lack of Coverage of Foreign News by US Newspapers', SocietyMarch.
41.
Heuvel, J. V. (1993) `For the Media, a Brave (and Scary) New World', Media Studies Journal7(2): 11-20.
42.
Hoge, J. F. (1993) `The End of Predictability', Media Studies Journal7(2): 1-9.
43.
`It's Too Big' (1994) Newsweek25 July: 30-31.
44.
Kaldor, M. (1993) `Sarajevo's Reproach', The ProgressiveSeptember: 21-23.
45.
Knight, R. (1992) `Lives of Quiet Desperation', US News and World Report30 November: 38-39.
46.
Lane, C. (1992a) `The Siege of Sarajevo: In a City Where Some 800 Snipers Roam the Streets, Humanitarian Aid Won't be Easy', Newsweek6 July: 42-44.
47.
Lane, C. (1992b) `Panic and Hope; Can Yugoslavia's New Prime Minister Find a Way to End the Bloodshed?', Newsweek27 July: 36-37.
48.
Lane, C. (1992c) `The Milosevic Maneuver', Newsweek14 December: 51.
49.
Lent, J. A. (1977) `Foreign News in the American Media', Journal of Communication27(1): 46-51.
50.
Lief, L. , K. Reisinger and C.A. Robbins (1992) `Europe's Trails of Tears; “Ethnic Cleansing” Threatens to Unleash Another Holocaust', US News and World Report27 July: 41-43.
51.
McAllister, J. F. O. (1992) `Atrocity and Outrage: Specters of Barbarism in Bosnia Compel the US and Europe to Ponder: Is It Time to Intervene?', Time17 August: 20-24.
52.
MacFarquhar, E. (1992) `Something Wicked This Way Comes; The Risk of Not Intervening in Yugoslavia', US News and World Report31 August/7 September: 70-71.
53.
Maloba, W. (1992) `The Media and Mau Mau: Kenyan Nationalism and Colonial Propaganda', pp. 51-61 in B. Hawk (ed.) Africa's Media Image. New York: Praeger.
54.
Marlowe, L. (1992) ` “Cleansed Wound”; In a Perilous Trip Through the Countryside, a Time Correspondent Discovers that Serbs Have Swept Vast Areas Clean of Muslims and Croats, but Their Victory is a Hollow One', Time14 September: 44-45.
55.
Masland, T. , J. Hammer, K. Breslau and J. Tanaka (1994) ` “Corpses Everywhere”; Rwanda: Once More, Tens of Thousands Massacred', Newsweek18 April: 33.
56.
Masmoudi, M. (1981) `The New World Information Order', pp. 77-96 in J. Richstad and M. H. Anderson (eds) Crisis in International News: Policies and Prospects. New York: Columbia University Press.
57.
Michaels, M. (1994a) `Descent into Mayhem: Tribal Slaughter Erupts in Rwanda, Trapping Foreigners and Forcing the US to Send Troops to the Region', Time18 April: 44.
58.
Michaels, M. (1994b) `Streets of Slaughter: Tribal Bloodlust and Political Rivalry Turn the Country into an Unimaginable Hell of Killing, Looting and Anarchy', Time25 April: 44-46.
59.
Michaels, M. (1994c) `Hell Postponed: Burundi's Balance', Time29 August: 56-57.
60.
Mudimbe, V. Y. (1988) The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
61.
`Mythmaking: The Balkans; A Look at the News Coverage of the War in the Former Yugoslavia' (1994) New York: Paper Tiger Television.
62.
Nagorski, A. (1992) `The Lessons of Yugoslavia; Warring Republics Must Solve Their Own Problems', Newsweek15 June: 34.
63.
Nelan, B.W. (1992) `Rumor and Reality; Whether All the Tales of Savagery Are True or Not, People Act As If the Worst is Yet to Come', Time24 August: 46-48.
64.
Peh, D. and S. Melkote (1991) `Bias in Newspaper Reporting: A Content Analysis of the Coverage of Korean Airlines and Iran Airbus Shootings in the US Elite Press', Gazette47(2): 59-78.
65.
Post, T. , R. Nordland, J. Brand, T. Stanger, K. Breslau and M.G. Warner (1992a) `The Face of Defeat: It's All Over: The Serbs Control Bosnia. How Milosevic Had His Way', Newsweek24 August: 45-46.
66.
Post, T. , J. Whitmore and D. Pedersen (1992b) `Paved with Good Intentions: Peace Talks Won't Save Bosnia from the Road to Hell', Newsweek7 September: 44-45.
67.
Post, T. , J. Barry, D. Waller, M. G. Warner, R. Nordland and A. Nagorski (1992c) `At Last, A Balkan Plan; But Will a New US Strategy Solve the Crisis?', Newsweek30 November: 46-47.
68.
Post, T. , J. Barry and M. G. Warner (1992d) `Next Target: Bosnia; Bush is Finally Ready to Take Action and the Pentagon Has a Plan', Newsweek28 December: 36-37.
69.
Prunier, G. (1995) The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide. New York: Columbia University Press.
70.
Ransdell, E. (1994) `Why is Rwanda Killing Itself? The Slaughter has Unleashed a Tide of Refugees and Raised Fears that the Fighting Will Spread', US News and World Report23 May: 46-48.
71.
Ransdell, E. and M. Cooper (1994) `To a Nation Dying Young; Falling by the Thousands, Rwandans are Still Afraid to Go Home', US News and World Report8 August: 39-41.
72.
Ransdell, E. , I. Gilmore, L. Lief, B. Auster and L. Fasulo (1994) `A Descent into Hell', US News and World Report1 August: 42.
73.
Righter, R. (1978) Whose News? Politics, the Press and the Third World. New York: Times Books.
74.
Roberts, S. (1994) `Rwanda's Trail of Tears', US News and World Report16 May: 10-11.
75.
Rosenblum, M. (1979) Coups and Earthquakes; Reporting the News for America. New York: Harper & Row.
76.
Rosenblum, M. (1993) Who Stole the News?New York: John Wiley.
77.
Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance (1994) London: African Rights.
78.
Said, E. W. (1978) Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books.
79.
Said, E. W. (1981) Covering Islam; How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. New York: Pantheon.
80.
Said, E. W. (1993) Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage Books.
81.
Shoemaker, P. , L. H. Danielian and N. Brendlinger (1991) `Deviant Acts, Risky Business and US Interests: The Newsworthiness of World Events', Journalism Quarterly68(4): 781-795.
82.
Sigal, L. (1973) Reporters and Officials: The Organization and Politics of Newsmaking. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.
83.
Smolowe, J. (1992) `Land of Slaughter; Serbia's Dream of Dominance Has Soaked in Blood the Republics of What Was Once Yugoslavia. The US and Europe Can No Longer Look Away', Time8 June: 32-36.
84.
Sreberny-Mohammadi, A. (1990) `US Media Covers The World', pp. 296-307 in J. Downing, A. Mohammadi and A. Sreberny-Mohammadi (eds) Questioning the Media: A Critical Introduction. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
85.
Stanger, T. and J. Hammer (1994) `Nice Idea, Wrong Army; Rwanda: Are the French the Ones to Make the Peace?', Newsweek4 July: 48.
86.
Tuchman, G. (1978) Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality. New York: The Free Press.
87.
Van Biema, D. (1994) `Exodus from Rwanda: The Fighting Seems to be Over. But the Wholesale Flight of Hutu Foreshadows New and Different Tragedies', Time25 July: 34-36.
88.
Wall, M. A. (1997) `The Rwanda Crisis: An Analysis of News Magazine Coverage', Gazette59(2): 121-134.
89.
Warner, M. G. (1992) `Bosnia: Will America Step in? The Pentagon Thinks it May Have to Take Charge', Newsweek22 June: 48.
90.
Watson, R. , M. G. Warner, D. Waller, R. Nordland and K. Breslau (1992) `Ethnic Cleansing; Shocking Images from Battered Bosnia Put Pressure on Bush to Decide what America Should Do - or Can Do - to Stop the Nightmare', Newsweek17 August: 16-20.
91.
Watson, R. , J. Schofield, R. Sparkman, L. N'Kaoua, K. Chubbuck and J. Barry (1994) `A Race With Death', Newsweek1 August: 26-30.