In affluent industrial societies, people tend to mentally classify environmental behaviors like recycling within the domain of morality. Intentions in this area are not based on a thorough calculation (conscious or unconscious) of the balance of costs and benefits but are a function of beliefs in what is right or wrong. I provide a brief review of the literature with the intention of uncovering problems and shortcomings in the framework of the Subjective Expected Utility model and the Theory of Reasoned Action with regard to understanding recycling behavior, and discuss examples of misleading policy conclusions. Within the framework of cognitive psychology, Schwartz's model of altruistic behavior offers a more satisfying starting point for understanding recycling behavior in affluent industrial societies.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Ajzen, I. (1985). From intention to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action-control: From cognition to behavior, pp. 11-39. Heidelberg: Springer.
2.
Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
3.
Allen, J. , Davis, D., & Soskin, M. (1993). Using coupon incentives in recycling aluminum: A market approach to energy conservation policy. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 27(2), 300-318.
4.
Bagozzi, R. P. (1992). The self-regulation of attitudes, intentions, and behavior. Social Psychology Quarterly, 55(2), 178-204.
5.
Bagozzi, R. P. , & Dabholkar, P. A. (1994). Consumer recycling goals and their effect on decisions to recycle: A means-end chain analysis. Psychology & Marketing, 11(5), 313-340.
6.
Bagozzi, R. P. , & Warshaw, P. R. (1990). Trying to consume. Journal of Consumer Research, 17, 127-140.
7.
Black, J. S. , Stern, P. C., & Elworth, J. T. (1985). Personal and contextual influences on household energy adaptations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 3-21.
8.
Cook, S. W. , & Berrenberg, J. L. (1981). Approaches to encouraging conservation behavior: A review and conceptual framework. Journal of Social Issues, 37(2), 73-107.
9.
De Young, R. (1985). Satisfaction from conservation activities in North America. Environmental Conservation, 12(3), 259-260.
10.
De Young, R. (1985-1986). Encouraging environmentally appropriate behavior: The role of intrinsic motivation. Journal of Environmental Systems, 15(4), 281-292.
11.
De Young, R. (1986). Some psychological aspects of recycling: The structure of conservation satisfaction. Environment and Behavior, 18(4), 435-449.
12.
De Young, R. (1988-1989). Exploring the difference between recyclers and non-recyclers: The role of information. Journal of Environmental Systems, 18(4), 341-351.
13.
De Young, R. (1990). Recycling as appropriate behavior: A review of survey data from selected recycling education programs in Michigan. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 3, 1-13.
14.
De Young, R. , & Kaplan, S. (1985-1986). Conservation behavior and the structure of satisfactions. Journal of Environmental Systems, 15(3), 223-292.
15.
Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105-115.
16.
Deci, E. L. (1972). Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic reinforcement, and inequity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22, 113-120.
17.
Derksen, L. , & Gartrell, J. (1993). The social context of recycling. American Sociological Review, 58, 434-442.
18.
Dwyer, W. O. , Leeming, F. C., Cobern, M. K., Porter, B. E., & Jackson, J. M. (1993). Critical review of behavioral interventions to preserve the environment: Research since 1980. Environment and Behavior, 25, 275-321.
19.
Etzioni, A. (1988). The moral dimension: Toward a new economics. New York: Free Press.
20.
Festinger, L. , & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203-210.
21.
Fishbein, M. , & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
22.
Frank, R. H. (1988). Passions within reasons: The strategic role of the emotions. New York: Norton.
23.
Frey, B. S. (1993). Motivation as a limit to pricing. Journal of Economic Psychology, 14, 635-664.
24.
Gamba, R. J. , & Oskamp, S. (1994). Factors influencing community residents' participation in commingled curbside recycling programs. Environment and Behavior, 26(5), 587-612.
25.
Geller, E. S. , Winett, R. A., & Everett, P. R. (1982). Preserving the environment: New strategies for behavior change. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
26.
Goldenhar, L. M. , & Connell, C. M. (1992-1993). Understanding and predicting recycling behavior: An application of the theory of reasoned action. Journal of Environmental Systems, 22(1), 91-103.
27.
Gray, D. B. (1985). Ecological beliefs and behaviors: Assessment and change. Westport: Greenwood Press.
28.
Gruder-Adams, S. (1990). Recycling participation assessment. BioCycle, 31(9), 38-43.
29.
Guagnano, G. A. , Stern, P. C., & Dietz, T. (1995). Influences on attitude-behavior relationships: A natural experiment with curbside recycling. Environment and Behavior, 27, 699-718.
30.
Hanson, J. W. (1980). A proposed paradigm for consumer product disposition processes. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 14(1), 49-67.
31.
Hines, J. M. , Hungerford, H. R., & Tomera, A. N. (1987). Analysis and synthesis of research on responsible environmental behavior: A meta analysis. Journal of Environmental Education, 18, 1-8.
32.
Hirsch, F. (1976). Social limits to growth. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
33.
Hirschman, A. O. (1982, December). Rival interpretations of market society: Civilizing, destructive, or feeble?Journal of Economic Literature, 20, 1463-1484.
34.
Homer, P. M. , & Kahle, L. R. (1988). A structural equation test of the value-attitude-behavior hierarchy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(4), 638-646.
35.
Hopper, J. R. , & Nielsen, J. M. (1991). Recycling as altruistic behavior: Normative and behavioral strategies to expand participation in a community recycling program. Environment and Behavior, 23(2), 195-220.
36.
Jackson, A. L. , Olsen, J. E., Granzin, K. L., & Burns, A. C. (1993). An investigation of determinants of recycling consumer behavior. Advances in Consumer Research, 20, 481-487.
37.
Jones, R. E. (1990). Understanding paper recycling in an institutionally supportive setting: An application of the theory of reasoned action. Journal of Environmental Systems, 19(4), 307-321.
38.
Katzev, R. D. , & Johnson, T. R. (1984). Comparing the effects of monetary incentives and foot-in-the-door strategies in promoting residential energy conservation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14, 12-27.
39.
Katzev, R. D. , & Pardini, A. U. (1987). The comparative effectiveness of reward and commitment approaches in motivating community recycling. Journal of Environmental Systems, 17(2), 93-113.
40.
Kok, G. , & Siero, S. (1985). Tin recycling: Awareness, comprehension, attitude, intention and behavior. Journal of Economic Psychology, 6, 157-173.
41.
Lee, Y.-J. , & De Young, R. D. (1993). Intrinsic satisfaction derived from office recycling behavior: A case study in Taiwan. Social Indicators Research, 31, 63-76.
42.
Lee, Y.-J. , De Young, R. D., & Marans, R. W. (1995). Factors influencing individual recycling behavior in office settings: A study of office workers in Taiwan. Environment and Behavior, 27(3), 380-403.
43.
Mansbridge, J. J. (1990). On the relation of altruism and self-interest. In J. J. Mansbridge (Ed.), Beyond self-interest. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
44.
McCarty, J. A. , & Shrum, L. J. (1993). A structural equation analysis of the relationships of personal values, attitudes and beliefs about recycling, and the recycling of solid waste products. Advances in Consumer Research, 20, 641-646.
45.
McCarty, J. A. , & Shrum, L. J. (1994). The recycling of solid wastes: Personal values, value orientations, and attitudes about recycling as antecedents of recycling behavior. Journal of Business Research, 30, 53-62.
46.
McGuinness, J. , Jones, A. P., & Cole, S. G. (1977). Attitudinal correlates of recycling behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62(4), 376-384.
47.
Moisander, J. , & Uusitalo, L. (1994). Attitude-behavior inconsistency: Limitations of the reasoned action approach in predicting behavior from proenvironmental attitudes. In G. Antonides & W. F. van Raaij (Eds.), Proceedings from the 19th Annual Colloquium of the International Association for Research in Economic Psychology (pp. 560-579). Rotterdam: Erasmus University.
48.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (1989). Economic instruments for environmental protection. Pans: OECD.
49.
Oskamp, S. , Harrington, M. J., Edwards, T. C., Sherwood, D. L., Okuda, S. M., & Swanson, D. C. (1991). Factors influencing household recycling behavior. Environment and Behavior, 23, 494-519.
50.
Pearce, D. W. , & Turner, R. K. (1992). Market-based approaches to solid waste management. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 8, 63-90.
51.
Pelton, L. E. , Strutton, D., Barnes, J. H., Jr., & True, S. L. (1993, Spring). The relationship among referents, opportunity, rewards, and punishments in consumer attitudes toward recycling: A structural equation approach. Journal of Macromarketing, 60-74.
52.
Pieters, R.G.M. (1989). Attitudes and behaviour in a source separation program: A garbology approach. Delft, The Netherlands: Euburon.
53.
Pieters, R.G.M. (1991). Changing garbage disposal patterns of consumers: Motivation, ability, and performance. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 10(2), 59-76.
54.
Pieters, R.G.M. , & Verhallen, T.M.M. (1986). Participation in source separation projects: Design characteristics and perceived costs and benefits. Resources and Conservation, 12, 95-111.
55.
Porter, B. E. , Leeming, F. C., & Dwyer, W. O. (1995). Solid waste recovery: A review of behavioral programs to increase recycling. Environment and Behavior, 27, 122-152.
56.
Riggle, D. (1989). Only pay for what you throw away. Biocycle, 30(2), 39-41.
57.
Ritchie, J.R.B. , & McDougall, G.H.G. (1985). Designing and marketing consumer energy conservation policies and programs: Implications from a decade of research. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 4, 14-32.
58.
Schwartz, S. H. (1970). Moral decision making and behavior. In J. Macauley & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior (pp. 127-141). New York: Academic Press.
59.
Schwartz, S. H. (1977). Normative influence on altruism. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 221-279). New York: Academic Press.
60.
Schwartz, S. H. , & Howard, J. A. (1980). Explanations of the moderating effect of responsibility denial on the personal norm-behavior relationship. Social Psychology Quarterly, 43(4), 441-446.
61.
Schwartz, S. H. , & Tessler, R. C. (1972). A test of a model for reducing measured attitude-behavior discrepancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 225-236.
62.
Simmons, D. , & Widmar, R. (1990). Motivations and barriers to recycling: Toward a strategy for public education. Journal of Environmental Education, 22(1), 13-18.
63.
Stern, P. C. , Dietz, T., & Black, J. S. (1986). Support for environmental protection: The role of moral norms. Population and Environment, 8, 204-222.
64.
Stern, P. C. , Dietz, T., & Kalof, L. (1993). Value orientations, gender, and environmental concern. Environment and Behavior, 25, 322-348.
65.
Stern, P. C. , & Kirkpatrick, E. M. (1977). Energy behavior: Conservation without coercion. Environment, 10, 10-15.
66.
Stern, P. C. , & Oskamp, S. (1987). Managing scarce environmental resources. In D. Stokols & I. Altman (Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology (pp. 1043-1088). New York: John Wiley.
67.
Thøgersen, J. (1994a). A model of recycling behaviour: With evidence from Danish source separation programmes. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 11(1), 145-163.
68.
Thøgersen, J. (1994b). Monetary incentives and environmental concern: Effects of a differentiated garbage fee. Journal of Consumer Policy, 17(4), 1-36.
69.
Uusitalo, L. (1989). Economic man or social man: Exploring free riding in the production of collective goods. In K. G. Grunert & F. Olander (Eds.), Understanding economic behaviour (pp. 267-283). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
70.
Van Liere, K. D. , & Dunlap, R. E. (1978). Moral norms and environmental behavior: An application of Schwartz's norm-activation model to yard burning. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 8, 174-188.
71.
Vining, J. , & Ebreo, A. (1990). What makes a recycler? A comparison of recyclers and nonrecyclers. Environment and Behavior, 22(1), 55-73.
72.
Vining, J. , & Ebreo, A. (1992). Predicting recycling behavior from global and specific environmental attitudes and changes in recycling opportunities. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 1580-1607.
73.
Wiener, J. L. , & Doescher, T. A. (1991, April). A framework for promoting cooperation. Journal of Marketing, 38-47.
74.
Zikmund, W. G. , & Stanton, W. J. (1971, July). Recycling solid wastes: A channels-of-distribution problem. Journal of Marketing, 35, 34-39.
