This study examines the association between perceived housing-based discrimination and residents’ trust, social connection, and community attitudes in Seoul, South Korea. Using four waves (2016–2021) of the Seoul Public Rental Housing Panel Survey (N = 6,317), we applied individual fixed effects models to assess the within-person effects of perceived discrimination on eight neighborhood-related outcomes. Models adjusted for time-varying covariates and used Bonferroni correction and E-values to assess robustness. Discrimination was associated with lower satisfaction with public housing and reduced trust in others, as well as more negative views on social mix and greater NIMBY attitudes. No significant associations were found with social connectedness with neighbors. Gender-stratified analyses revealed stronger effects among women, particularly in trust and attitudes toward social mix in neighborhood. These findings highlight the need for anti-stigma interventions and inclusive housing policies that foster social cohesion in public housing environments.
BraakP.van TienovenT. P. (2025). Navigating the city: A systematic literature review on women’s perceived safety in urban public space. Cities, 162, 105907.
2.
BroudyR.BrondoloE.CoakleyV.BradyN.CassellsA.TobinJ. N.SweeneyM. (2007). Perceived ethnic discrimination in relation to daily moods and negative social interactions. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30(1), 31–43.
3.
ChanE. W.FanY. (2023). Housing discrimination in the low-income context: Evidence from a correspondence experiment. Journal of Housing Economics, 59, 101889.
DuH.HuiE. C. M.ChenL. (2024). Do long commutes discourage fertility intentions among young public housing renters in Guangzhou, China?Housing Policy Debate, 34(4), 574–601.
6.
DuH.ParkG.-R. (2025). Housing discrimination and health of public housing residents in Korea: An examination of gender heterogeneity. Journal of Urban Health, 102, 989–998.
7.
FanX. (2019). Discrimination experience, family relations, and generalized trust in China. Social Science Research, 77, 115–129.
8.
FrostD. M.MeyerI. H. (2023). Minority stress theory: Application, critique, and continued relevance. Current Opinion in Psychology, 51, 101579.
9.
Gabarrell-PascuetA.Lloret-PinedaA.Franch-RocaM.Mellor-MarsaB.Alos-BelenguerM. D. C.HeY.Hafi-ElmokhtariR. E.VillalobosF.Bayes-MarinI.Aparicio ParejaL.Álvarez BoboO.Espinal CabezasM.OsorioY.HaroJ. M.Cristóbal-NarvaezP. (2023). Impact of perceived discrimination and coping strategies on well-being and mental health in newly-arrived migrants in Spain. PLoS One, 18(12), e0294295.
10.
GiurgescuC.ZenkS. N.DancyB. L.ParkC. G.DieberW.BlockR. (2012). Relationships among neighborhood environment, racial discrimination, psychological distress, and preterm birth in African American women. JOGN - Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 41(6), E51–E61.
11.
HarnoisC. E.BastosJ. L. (2018). Discrimination, harassment, and gendered health inequalities: Do perceptions of workplace mistreatment contribute to the gender gap in self-reported health?Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 59(2), 283–299.
12.
JacksonA. L.SollerB.BrowningC. R. (2017). The influence of Women’s neighborhood resources on perceptions of social disorder. City and Community, 16(2), 189–208.
13.
JunH.-J.HanS. (2020). The effect of discrimination on stress among public housing residents: A comparative study between Social-Mix and independent public housing complexes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(18), 6788.
14.
KangS.KooJ.-H. (2024). Exploring stigma experiences of scattered-site public housing residents and its characteristics based on social contact theory. PLoS One, 19(11), e0313005.
15.
KriegerN. (2012). Methods for the Scientific Study of Discrimination and Health: An ecosocial approach. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 936–944.
16.
KriegerN. (2014). Discrimination and health inequities. International Journal of Health Services, 44(4), 643–710.
17.
KutlacaM.BeckerJ.RadkeH. (2020). A hero for the outgroup, a black sheep for the ingroup: Societal perceptions of those who confront discrimination. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 88, 103832.
18.
LeeH.KimJ.LeeH.LeeG.HuqM.DevakumarD.KimS.-S. (2024). Ethnic discrimination, asking for fair treatment, and poor self-rated health: A gender stratified analysis of 13,443 Korean Chinese waged workers in South Korea. International Journal for Equity in Health, 23(1), 82.
19.
MathurM. B.DingP.RiddellC. A.VanderWeeleT. J. (2018). Web site and R package for Computing E-values. Epidemiology, 29(5), e45–e47.
20.
NordinT.DegerstedtF.Granholm ValmariE. (2024). A scoping review of masculinity norms and their interplay with loneliness and social connectedness among men in Western societies. American Journal of Men’s Health, 18(6), 15579883241304585.
21.
OECD. (2020). Social housing: A key part of past and future housing policy. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/5b54f96b-en
22.
ParkG. R.KimJ. (2022). The gendered relationship between cumulative exposure to lower community attachment and adolescent health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 70(3–4), 305–313.
23.
PriestN.KavanaghA.BécaresL.KingT. (2019). Cumulative effects of bullying and racial discrimination on Adolescent Health in Australia. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 60(3), 344–361.
24.
RonaldR.JinM.-Y. (2010). Homeownership in South Korea: Examining sector underdevelopment. Urban Studies, 47(11), 2367–2388.
25.
Seoul Metropolitan Council. (2023). 61.4% of Seoul citizens report discrimination in mixed housing complexes, with issues such as separate entrances being a serious concern. https://www.metroseoul.co.kr/article/20240421500164 (Original source in Korean).
26.
SimningA.van WijngaardenE.ConwellY. (2011). Anxiety, mood, and substance use disorders in United States African-American public housing residents. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 46(10), 983–992.
27.
SmithR. A.BishopR. E. (2019). Insights into stigma management communication theory: considering stigmatization as interpersonal influence. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 47(5), 571–590.
28.
SuY.PanX.LiY.LiG.ZhangG. (2024). Gender differences in the effects of urban environment on nighttime exercise behaviours: A qualitative study. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1465737.
29.
ThomsenF. K. (2017). Discrimination (Vol. 1). Oxford University Press.
30.
VanderWeeleT. J.DingP. (2017). Sensitivity analysis in observational research: Introducing the E-value. Annals of Internal Medicine, 167(4), 268–274.
31.
VangZ. M.HouF.ElderK. (2019). Perceived religious discrimination, religiosity, and life satisfaction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(6), 1913–1932.
32.
Vásquez-VeraC.FernándezA.BorrellC. (2022). Gender-based inequalities in the effects of housing on health: A critical review. SSM - Population Health, 17, 101068.
33.
Vásquez-VeraC.FernándezA.Sánchez-LedesmaE.BennettM.BorrellC. (2023). Gender-based differences in the meanings and uses of housing for health and everyday life: An intersectional approach. Women's Studies International Forum, 99, 102761.
34.
WooA.JohK.YuC.-Y. (2021). Who believes and why they believe: Individual perception of public housing and housing price depreciation. Cities, 109, 103019.
35.
YangT.-C.ChenD.ParkK. (2016). Perceived housing discrimination and self-reported health: How do neighborhood features matter?Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 50(6), 789–801.
36.
YangT.-C.ChenI.-C.KimS.ChoiS. W. (2018). Differential investments and opportunities: How do neighborhood conditions moderate the relationship between perceived housing discrimination and social capital?Social Science Research, 72, 69–83.
37.
YoonJ.KimJ.-H.ChungY.ParkJ.SorensenG.KimS.-S. (2021). Gender differences in under-reporting hiring discrimination in Korea: A machine learning approach. Epidemiology and Health, 43, e2021099.
