Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Residents in US cities are exposed to high levels of stress and violent crime. At the same time, a number of cities have put forward “greening” efforts which may promote nature’s calming effects and reduce stressful stimuli. Previous research has shown that greening may lower aggressive behaviors and violent crime. In this study we examined, for the first time, the longitudinal effects over a 30-year period of average city greenness on homicide rates across 290 major cities in the US, using multilevel linear growth curve modeling. Overall, homicide rates in US cities decreased over this time-period (52.1–33.5 per 100,000 population) while the average greenness increased slightly (0.41–0.43 NDVI). Change in average city greenness was negatively associated with homicide, controlling for a range of variables (β = −.30, p-value = .02). The results of this study suggest that efforts to increase urban greenness may have small but significant violence-reduction benefits.

Keywords

crime urban greening greenspace NDVI growth curve model

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Agnew

(2012). Dire forecast: A theoretical model of the impact of climate change on crime. Theoretical Criminology, 16(1), 21–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480611416843

Anderson

C. A.

(1989). Temperature and aggression: Ubiquitous effects of heat on occurrence of human violence. Psychological Bulletin, 106(1), 74–96. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.74

Anderson

C. A.

Bushman

B. J.

(2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231

Apel

Horney

(2017). How and why does work matter? Employment conditions, routine activities, and crime among adult male offenders. Criminology, 55(2), 307–343. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12134

Barnett

Mencken

F. C.

(2009). Social disorganization theory and the contextual nature of crime in nonmetropolitan counties. Rural Sociology, 67(3), 372–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.2002.tb00109.x

Baron

R. A.

Bell

P. A.

(1976). Aggression and heat: The influence of ambient temperature, negative affect, and a cooling drink on physical aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33(3), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.33.3.245

Battin

J. R.

Crowl

J. N.

(2017). Urban sprawl, population density, and crime: An examination of contemporary migration trends and crime in suburban and rural neighborhoods. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 19(2), 136–150. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41300-017-0020-9

Beam

D. R.

Szabo

Olson

Hoffman

Beyer

K. M. M.

(2020). Vacant lot to community garden conversion and crime in Milwaukee: A difference-in-differences analysis. Injury Prevention 2020. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2020-043767

Berman

M. G.

Jonides

Kaplan

(2008). The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature. Psychological Science, 19(12), 1207–1212.

10.

Berto

(2005). Exposure to restorative environments helps restore attentional capacity. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 25(3), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2005.07.001

11.

Blokland

A. A. J.

Nieuwbeerta

(2005). The effects of life circumstances on longitudinal trajectories of offending. Criminology, 43, 1203–1240. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2005.00037.x

12.

Blumstein

Rosenfeld

(2008). Factors contributing to US crime trends. In G. A. Rosenfeld

. (Ed.), Understanding crime trends: Workshop report (pp. 13–44). National Academies Press.

13.

Boessen

Hipp

J. R.

(2018). Parks as crime inhibitors or generators: Examining parks and the role of their nearby context. Social Science Research, 76, 186–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2018.08.008

14.

Borg

M. J.

Parker

K. F.

(2001). Mobilizing law in urban areas: The social structure of homicide clearance rates. Law & Society Review, 35(2), 435–466. https://doi.org/10.2307/3185409

15.

Bowler

D. E.

Buyung-Ali

L. M.

Knight

T. M.

Pullin

A. S.

(2010). A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments. BMC Public Health, 10, 456. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-456

16.

Boyko

C. T.

Cooper

(2014). Density and mental wellbeing. In R. Cooper, E. Burton, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Wellbeing: A complete reference guide (pp. 1–22). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

17.

Branas

C. C.

Cheney

R. A.

MacDonald

J. M.

Tam

V. W.

Jackson

T. D.

Ten Have

T. R.

(2011). A difference-in-differences analysis of health, safety, and greening vacant urban space. American Journal of Epidemiology, 174(11), 1296–1306. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwr273

18.

Branas

C. C.

South

Kondo

M. C.

Hohl

B. C.

Bourgois

Wiebe

D. J.

MacDonald

J. M.

(2018). Citywide cluster randomized trial to restore blighted vacant land and its effects on violence, crime, and fear. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(12), 2946–2951. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718503115

19.

Brantingham

P. L.

Brantingham

P. J.

(1993). Nodes, paths and edges: Considerations on the complexity of crime and the physical environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13, 3–28.

20.

Bratman

G. N.

Daily

G. C.

Levy

B. J.

Gross

J. J.

(2015). The benefits of nature experience: Improved affect and cognition. Landscape and Urban Planning, 138, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.02.005

21.

Bratman

G. N.

Hamilton

J. P.

Hahn

K. S.

Daily

G. C.

Gross

J. J.

(2015). Nature experience reduces rumination and subgenual prefrontal cortex activation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112(28), 8567–8572. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1510459112

22.

Breetzke

G. D.

(2020). The importance of space and time in aggravated assault victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(13-14), 2536–2557.

23.

Breetzke

G. D.

Cohn

E. G.

(2012). Seasonal assault and neighborhood deprivation in South Africa. Environment and Behavior, 44(5), 641–667. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916510397758

24.

Burley

B. A.

(2018). Green infrastructure and violence: Do new street trees mitigate violent crime? Health & Place, 54, 43–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.08.015

25.

Byrne

J. M.

Sampson

R. J.

(1986). Key issues in the social ecology of crime. In Byrne

J. M.

Sampson

R. J.

(Eds.), The social ecology of crime (pp. 1–22). Springer-Verlag.

26.

Ceccato

(2005). Homicide in São Paulo, Brazil: Assessing spatial-temporal and weather variations. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 25(3), 307–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2005.07.002

27.

Cooper

Smith

E. L.

(2011). Homicide trends in the United States, 1980–2008: Annual rates for 2009 and 2010. U.S. Department of Justice. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/htus8008.pdf

28.

Crutchfield

R. D.

Pitchford

S. R.

(1997). Work and crime: The effects of labor stratification. Social Forces, 76(1), 93–118. https://doi.org/10.2307/2580319

29.

Curran

P. J.

Obeidat

Losardo

(2010). Twelve frequently asked questions about growth curve modeling. Journal of Cognition and Development, 11(2), 121–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248371003699969

30.

Demeau

Parent

(2018). Impacts of crime attractors and generators on criminality in Montreal. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 60(3), 387–412. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.2017-0028.r1

31.

Dexter

E. G.

(1904). Weather influences; an empirical study of the mental and physiological effects of definite meteorological conditions. The Macmillan Company.

32.

Donovan

G. H.

Prestemon

J. P.

(2012). The effect of trees on crime in Portland, Oregon. Environment and Behavior, 44(1), 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916510383238

33.

Edmonds

J. A.

Rosenberg

N. J.

(2005). Climate change impacts for the conterminous USA: An integrated assessment summary. Climatic Change, 69(1), 151–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-005-3613-8

34.

Eskandari

Borji

Khosravi

Mesbahzadeh

(2016). Desertification of forest, range and desert in Tehran province, affected by climate change. Solid Earth, 7(3), 905–915. https://doi.org/10.5194/se-7-905-2016

35.

Farrell

(2013). Five tests for a theory of the crime drop. Crime Science, 2, Article 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-7680-2-5

36.

Farrell

(2016). Attempted crime and the crime drop. International Criminal Justice Review, 26(1), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/1057567715615392

37.

Farrington

D. P.

Gallagher

Morley

St. Ledger

R. J.

West

D. J.

(1986). Unemployment, school leaving, and crime. The British Journal of Criminology, 26(4), 335–356. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a047626

38.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2018). UCR technical specifications, user manuals, and data tools. Retrieved August 22, 2019, from https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/ucr/data-documentation.

39.

Fuller

R. A.

Irvine

K. N.

Devine-Wright

Warren

P. H.

Gaston

K. J.

(2007). Psychological benefits of greenspace increase with biodiversity. Biology Letters, 3(4), 390–394. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0149

40.

Gamble

J. L.

Hess

J. J.

(2012). Temperature and violent crime in dallas, Texas: Relationships and implications of climate change. The Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, 13(3), 239–246. https://doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2012.3.11746

41.

Garvin

E. C.

Cannuscio

C. C.

Branas

C. C.

(2013). Greening vacant lots to reduce violent crime: A randomised controlled trial. Injury Prevention, 19(3), 198–203. https://doi.org/10.1136/injuryprev-2012-040439

42.

Glaeser

Sacerdote

(1999). Why is there more crime in cities? Journal of Political Economy, 107(S6), S225–S258. https://doi.org/10.1086/250109

43.

Goldstein

Jensen

Reiskin

(2001). Urban vacant land redevelopment: Challenges and progress. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Working Paper.

44.

Goodson

Bouffard

L. A.

(2020). The rural/urban divide: Examining different types of assault through a social disorganization lens. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(17-18), 3530–3553. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517711179

45.

Gottfredson

D. C.

(1985). Youth employment, crime, and schooling: A longitudinal study of a national sample. Developmental Psychology, 21(3), 419–432. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.21.3.419

46.

Greene

C. S.

Robinson

P. J.

Millward

A. A.

(2018). Canopy of advantage: Who benefits most from city trees? Journal of Environmental Management, 208, 24–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.12.015

47.

Groff

McCord

E. S.

(2012). The role of neighborhood parks as crime generators. Security Journal, 25(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1057/sj.2011.1

48.

Grommon

McCluskey

J. D.

Bynum

T. S.

(2017). From theory to practice: Reducing gun violence and homicide in Detroit. In Brookman

Maguire

E. R.

Maguire

(Eds.), The handbook of homicide (pp. 659–675). Wiley-Blackwell.

49.

Guerreiro

de Leeuw

Foltescu

Horálek

(2014). Air quality in Europe—2014 report. European Environment Agency.

50.

Hair

Black

W. C.

Babin

B. J.

Anderson

R. E.

(2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson Education International.

51.

Harris

A. R.

Thomas

S. H.

Fisher

G. A.

Hirsch

D. J.

(2002). Murder and medicine: The lethality of criminal assault 1960-1999. Homicide Studies, 6(2), 128–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/108876790200600203

52.

Harris

Larson

Ogletree

(2018). Different views from the 606: Examining the impacts of an urban greenway on crime in Chicago. Environment and Behavior, 50(1), 56–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916517690197

53.

Hipp

J. R.

Curran

P. J.

Bollen

K. A.

Bauer

D. J.

(2004). Crimes of opportunity or crimes of emotion? Testing two explanations of seasonal change in crime. Social Forces, 82(4), 1333–1372. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2004.0074

54.

Holt

E. W.

Lombard

Q. K.

Best

Smiley-Smith

Quinn

J. E.

(2019). Active and passive use of green space, health, and well-being amongst university students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(3), i: E424. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030424

55.

Chen

Sun

(2017). Impact of climate variability and change on crime rates in Tangshan, China. The Science of the Total Environment, 609, 1041–1048. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.07.163

56.

Jacobs

(1961). The death and life of great American cities. Vintage Books.

57.

James

Banay

R. F.

Hart

J. E.

Laden

(2015). A review of the health benefits of greenness. Current Epidemiology Reports, 2(2), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40471-015-0043-7

58.

Jensen

Gatrell

Boulton

Harper

(2004). Using remote sensing and geographic information systems to study urban quality of life and urban forest amenities. Ecology and Society, 9(5), 5.

59.

Jiang

Deal

Pan

Larsen

Hsieh

C.-H.

Chang

C.-Y.

Sullivan

W. C.

(2017). Remotely-sensed imagery vs. Eye-level photography: Evaluating associations among measurements of tree cover density. Landscape and Urban Planning, 157, 270–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.07.010

60.

Johnson

K. M.

Lichter

D. T.

(2010). Growing diversity among America’s children and youth: Spatial and temporal dimensions. Population and Development Review, 36, 151–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2010.00322.x

61.

Kaplan

(1989). The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. Cambridge University Press.

62.

Kimpton

Corcoran

Wickes

(2017). Greenspace and crime: An analysis of greenspace types, neighboring composition, and the temporal dimensions of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 54(3), 303–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427816666309

63.

Knepper

(2012). An international crime decline: Lessons for social welfare crime policy? Social Policy and Administration, 46(4), 359–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9515.2012.00838.x

64.

Knutsson

(1997). Restoring public order in a city park. In Homel

(Ed.), Policing for prevention: Reducing crime, public intoxication and injury (Vol. 7, pp. 133–151). Willow Tree Press.

65.

Kondo

Hohl

Han

Branas

(2016). Effects of greening and community reuse of vacant lots on crime. Urban Studies, 53(15), 3279–3295. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098015608058

66.

Kondo

M. C.

South

E. C.

Branas

C. C.

Richmond

T. S.

Wiebe

D. J.

(2017). The association between urban tree cover and gun assault: A case-control and case-crossover study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 186(3), 289–296. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwx096

67.

Kong

Zhang

Singh

V. P.

Shi

(2017). Seasonal vegetation response to climate change in the Northern Hemisphere (1982–2013). Global and Planetary Change, 148, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2016.10.020

68.

Krivo

L. J.

Peterson

R. D.

(2000). The structural context of homicide: Accounting for racial differences in process. American Sociological Review, 65, 547–559.

69.

Kuo

F. E.

Sullivan

W. C.

(2001a). Aggression and violence in the inner city: Effects of environment via mental fatigue. Environment and Behavior, 33(4), 543–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139160121973124

70.

Kuo

F. E.

Sullivan

W. C.

(2001b). Environment and crime in the inner city: Does vegetation reduce crime? Environment and Behavior, 33(3), 343–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139160121973025

71.

Lader

Walsh

J. E.

Bhatt

U. S.

Bieniek

P. A.

(2018). Agro-climate projections for a warming Alaska. Earth Interactions, 22(18), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1175/ei-d-17-0036.1

72.

Landauer

Juhola

Klein

(2019). The role of scale in integrating climate change adaptation and mitigation in cities. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 62(5), 741–765. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2018.1430022

73.

Lanier

Huff-Corzine

(2006). American Indian homicide: A county-level analysis utilizing social disorganization theory. Homicide Studies, 10(3), 181–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767906288573

74.

Lederbogen

Kirsch

Haddad

Streit

Tost

Schuch

Wüst

Pruessner

J. C.

Rietschel

Deuschle

Meyer-Lindenberg

(2011). City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans. Nature, 474(7352), 498–501. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10190

75.

Lercher

(2019). Noise in cities: Urban and transport planning determinants and health in cities. In Nieuwenhuijsen

Khreis

(Eds.), Integrating human health into urban and transport planning (pp. 443–481). Springer.

76.

Levitt

S. D.

(1996). The effect of prison population size on crime rates: Evidence from prison overcrowding litigation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111(2), 319–351.

77.

Weng

(2007). Measuring the quality of life in city of Indianapolis by integration of remote sensing and census data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 28(2), 249–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160600735624

78.

Linning

S. J.

Andresen

M. A.

Brantingham

P. J.

(2017). Crime seasonality: Examining the temporal fluctuations of property crime in cities with varying climates. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 61(16), 1866–1891. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X16632259

79.

Liu

Zhang

Lin

You

Zhang

Huang

van Den Bosch

C. C. K.

Lan

(2018). The relationship between self-rated naturalness of university green space and students’ restoration and health. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 34, 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.07.008

80.

Lochner

Moretti

(2004). The effect of education on crime: Evidence from prison inmates, arrests, and self-reports. American Economic Review, 94(1), 155–189. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282804322970751

81.

Longcore

Rich

(2004). Ecological light pollution. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2(4), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0191:elp]2.0.co;2

82.

Lum

Vovak

(2018). Variability in the use of misdemeanor arrests by police agencies from 1990 to 2013: An application of group-based trajectory modeling. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 29(6-7), 536–560.

83.

Mares

(2013). Climate change and crime: Monthly temperature and precipitation anomalies and crime rates in st. Louis, MO 1990–2009. Crime Law and Social Change, 59(2), 185–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-013-9411-8

84.

Mares

D. M.

Moffett

K. W.

(2016). Climate change and interpersonal violence: A “global” estimate and regional inequities. Climatic Change, 135(2), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-015-1566-0

85.

Mars

Heron

Crane

Hawton

Lewis

Macleod

Tilling

Gunnell

(2014). Clinical and social outcomes of adolescent self harm: Population based birth cohort study. BMJ, 349, g5954. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g5954

86.

McCarthy

J. D.

Galle

O. R.

Zimmern

(1975). Population density, social structure, and interpersonal violence: An intermetropolitan test of competing models. American Behavioral Scientist, 18(6), 771–789. https://doi.org/10.1177/000276427501800604

87.

McDowall

Loftin

(1992). Comparing the UCR and NCS over time. Criminology, 30, 125–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01097.x

88.

Messner

S. F.

Sampson

R. J.

(1991). The sex ratio, family disruption, and rates of violent crime: The paradox of demographic structure. Social Forces, 69(3), 693–713. https://doi.org/10.2307/2579470

89.

Meyer

McIntosh

(1992). The USA Today index of ethnic diversity. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 4(1), 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/4.1.51

90.

Morrison

W. D.

(1891). Crime and its causes. Swan Sonnenschein & Co.

91.

Nash

M. S.

Wickham

Christensen

Wade

(2017). Changes in landscape greenness and climatic factors over 25 years (1989-2013) in the USA. Remote Sensing, 9(3), 295. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9030295

92.

Nutsford

Pearson

A. L.

Kingham

Reitsma

(2016). Residential exposure to visible blue space (but not green space) associated with lower psychological distress in a capital city. Health & Place, 39, 70–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2016.03.002

93.

Office for Victims of Crime. (2017). National crime victims’ rights week resource guide: Crime and victimization fact sheets. The National Center for the Victims of Crime. https://ovc.ncjrs.gov/ncvrw2017/images/en_artwork/Fact_Sheets/2017NCVRW_UrbanRural_508.pdf

94.

Pearson

A. L.

Pfeiffer

K. A.

Gardiner

Horton

Buxton

R. T.

Hunter

R. F.

Breeze

McDade

(2020). Study of active neighborhoods in Detroit (StAND): Study protocol for a natural experiment evaluating the health benefits of ecological restoration of parks. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 638. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08716-3

95.

Peen

Schoevers

R. A.

Beekman

A. T.

Dekker

(2010). The current status of urban-rural differences in psychiatric disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 121(2), 84–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01438.x

96.

Peterson

R. D.

Krivo

L. J.

(2010). Divergent social worlds: Neighborhood crime and the racial-spatial divide. Russell SAGE Foundation.

97.

Pozzi

Small

(2001). Exploratory analysis of suburban land cover and population density in the USA. In: IEEE/ISPRS Joint Workshop on Remote Sensing and Data Fusion Over Urban Areas, Rome, Italy (Vol. 8–9, pp. 250–254). https://doi.org/10.1109/DFUA.2001.985890

98.

PRISM Climate Group. (2018). 30-year normal. [ASC file]. Oregon State University. Retrieved October 05 2018, from http://prism.oregonstate.edu/normals/

99.

Ranson

(2014). Crime, weather, and climate change. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 67(3), 274–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2013.11.008

100.

Ratcliffe

(2010). Crime mapping: Spatial and temporal challenges. In Piquero

A. R.

Weisburd

(Eds.), Handbook of quantitative criminology (pp. 5–24). Springer.

101.

Rhew

I. C.

Vander Stoep

Kearney

Smith

N. L.

Dunbar

M. D.

(2011). Validation of the normalized difference vegetation index as a measure of neighborhood greenness. Annals of Epidemiology, 21(12), 946–952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.09.001

102.

Rhodes

Watts

Davies

Martin

Smith

Clark

Craine

Lyons

(2007). Risk, shame and the public injector: A qualitative study of drug injecting in South Wales. Social Science & Medicine, 65(3), 572–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.03.033

103.

Roe

J. J.

Aspinall

P. A.

Mavros

Coyne

(2013). Engaging the brain: The impact of natural versus urban scenes using novel EEG methods in an experimental setting. Environmental Sciences, 1(2), 93–104. https://doi.org/10.12988/es.2013.3109

104.

Roe

J. J.

Thompson

C. W.

Aspinall

P. A.

Brewer

M. J.

Duff

E. I.

Miller

Mitchell

Clow

(2013). Green space and stress: Evidence from cortisol measures in deprived urban communities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(9), 4086–4103. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10094086

105.

Rosenbaum

M. S.

(2009). Restorative servicescapes: Restoring directed attention in third places. Journal of Service Management, 20(2), 173–191. https://doi.org/10.1108/09564230910952762

106.

Rosenfeld

Fornango

(2008). The impact of economic conditions on robbery and property crime: The role of consumer sentiment. Criminology, 45(4), 735–769.

107.

Rotton

Cohn

E. G.

(2001). Temperature, routine activities, and domestic violence: A reanalysis. Violence and Victims, 16(2), 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.16.2.203

108.

Rotton

Cohn

E. G.

(2003). Global warming and U.S. Crime rates: An application of routine activity theory. Environment and Behavior, 35(6), 802–825. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916503255565

109.

Sadler

R. C.

Pizarro

Turchan

Gasteyer

S. P.

McGarrell

E. F.

(2017). Exploring the spatial-temporal relationships between a community greening program and neighborhood rates of crime. Applied Geography, 83, 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2017.03.017

110.

Sampson

R. J.

Laub

J. H.

(1993). Structural variations in juvenile court processing: Inequality, the underclass, and social control. Law & Society Review, 27(2), 285–311. https://doi.org/10.2307/3053938

111.

Sarkisian

Gerstel

(2016). Does singlehood isolate or integrate? Examining the link between marital status and ties to kin, friends, and neighbors. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 33(3), 361–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407515597564

112.

Schinasi

L. H.

Hamra

G. B.

(2017). A time series analysis of associations between daily temperature and crime events in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Journal of Urban Health, 94(6), 892–900. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-017-0181-y

113.

Schut

A. G.

Ivits

Conijn

J. G.

Ten Brink

Fensholt

(2015). Trends in global vegetation activity and climatic drivers indicate a decoupled response to climate change. PLoS One, 10(10), e0138013. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138013

114.

Scott

C. A.

Lutz-Ley

A. N.

(2016). Enhancing water governance for climate resilience: Arizona, USA—Sonora, Mexico comparative assessment of the role of reservoirs in adaptive management for water security. In C. Tortajada (Ed.), Increasing resilience to climate variability and change: The roles of infrastructure and governance in the context of adaptation (pp. 15–40). Springer.

115.

Setälä

Viippola

Rantalainen

A.-L.

Pennanen

Yli-Pelkonen

(2013). Does urban vegetation mitigate air pollution in northern conditions? Environmental Pollution, 183, 104–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.11.010

116.

Shaw

McKay

(1942). Juvenile deliquency and urban areas. University of Chicago Press.

117.

Shaw

van Dijk

Rhomberg

(2003). Determining trends in global crime and justice: An overview of results from the United Nations surveys of crime trends and operations of criminal justice systems. In J. van Dijk & V. Ruggiero (Eds.), Forum on Crime and Society (Vol. 3, pp. 35–63). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.

118.

Skogan

W. G.

(1990). Disorder and decline. Free Press.

119.

Snelgrove

A. G.

Michael

J. H.

Waliczek

T. M.

Zajicek

J. M.

(2004). Urban greening and criminal behavior: A geographic information system perspective. HortTechnology, 14(1), 48–51. https://doi.org/10.21273/horttech.14.1.0048

120.

Staats

Jahncke

Herzog

T. R.

Hartig

(2016). Urban options for psychological restoration: Common strategies in everyday situations. PLoS One, 11(1), e0146213. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146213

121.

Stansfield

Parker

K. F.

(2013). Teasing out the effects of macro-conditions on race-specific male homicide rates: Do distinct predictors vary by racial group and over time? Social Science Research, 42(3), 633–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.12.015

122.

Steffensmeier

D. J.

Allan

E. A.

Harer

M. D.

Streifel

(1989). Age and the distribution of crime. American Journal of Sociology, 94(4), 803–831.

123.

Stevens

H. R.

Beggs

P. J.

Graham

P. L.

Chang

H. C.

(2019). Hot and bothered? Associations between temperature and crime in australia. International Journal of Biometeorology, 63(6), 747–762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-019-01689-y

124.

Szantoi

Escobedo

Wagner

Rodriguez

J. M.

Smith

(2012). Socioeconomic factors and urban tree cover policies in a subtropical urban forest. GIScience & Remote Sensing, 49(3), 428–449. https://doi.org/10.2747/1548-1603.49.3.428

125.

Tam

M. Y. S.

Bassett

G. W.

(2004). Does diversity matter? Measuring the impact of high school diversity on freshman GPA. Policy Studies Journal, 32(1), 129–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0190-292x.2004.00056.x

126.

Taylor

R. B.

Groff

E. R.

Elesh

Johnson

(2014). Intra-metropolitan crime patterns predictors, and predictions, executive summary. National Institute of Justice.

127.

Thaler

(1978). A note on the value of crime control: Evidence from the property market. Journal of Urban Economics, 5(1), 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/0094-1190(78)90042-6

128.

Tong

R. Z.

Song

Sun

W. C.

Z. X.

Yao

X. L.

J. S.

(2019). Analyzing the impact of climate change on natural vegetation greenness using improved statistical vegetation index simulation model. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, 17(2), 4677–4691. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_46774691

129.

Troy

Morgan Grove

O’Neil-Dunne

(2012). The relationship between tree canopy and crime rates across an urban–rural gradient in the greater Baltimore region. Landscape and Urban Planning, 106(3), 262–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.03.010

130.

Tyrväinen

Ojala

Korpela

Lanki

Tsunetsugu

Kagawa

(2014). The influence of urban green environments on stress relief measures: A field experiment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 38, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.12.005

131.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2015). 2015 TIGER/line shapefiles (machine readable data files). https://www.census.gov/geographies/mapping-files/time-series/geo/tiger-line-file.html

132.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2016). Measuring America: Our changing landscape. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/visualizations/2016/comm/acs-rural-urban.pdf

133.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2018). Census regions and divisions of the United States. Retrieved from March 14, 2019, from, https://www2.census.gov/geo/pdfs/maps-data/maps/reference/us_regdiv.pdf

134.

van Dijk

Tseloni

Farrell

. (2012). The international crime drop: New directions in research. Palgrave Macmillan.

135.

Walsh

(2011). Measuring crime and criminal behavior. In Walsh

(Ed.), Criminology: The essentials (pp. 21–40). SAGE Publications.

136.

Walsh

Jorgensen

(2017). Criminology: The essentials (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications Inc.

137.

Wandersman

Nation

(1998). Urban neighborhoods and mental health: Psychological contributions to understanding toxicity, resilience, and interventions. American Psychologist, 53(6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.53.6.647

138.

Webb

N. P.

Marshall

N. A.

Stringer

L. C.

Reed

M. S.

Chappell

Herrick

J. E.

(2017). Land degradation and climate change: Building climate resilience in agriculture. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 15(8), 450–459. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1530

139.

White

I. R.

Royston

Wood

A. M.

(2011). Multiple imputation using chained equations: Issues and guidance for practice. Statistics in Medicine, 30(4), 377–399. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.4067

140.

White

M. P.

Alcock

Grellier

Wheeler

B. W.

Hartig

Warber

S. L.

Bone

Depledge

M. H.

Fleming

L. E.

(2019). Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 7730. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44097-3

141.

Wilkowski

B. M.

Robinson

M. D.

(2008). Guarding against hostile thoughts: Trait anger and the recruitment of cognitive control. Emotion, 8(4), 578–583. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.8.4.578

142.

Wilkowski

B. M.

Robinson

M. D.

Troop-Gordon

(2010). How does cognitive control reduce anger and aggression? The role of conflict monitoring and forgiveness processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(5), 830–840. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018962

143.

Wolfe

M. K.

Mennis

(2012). Does vegetation encourage or suppress urban crime? Evidence from Philadelphia, PA. Landscape and Urban Planning, 108(2-4), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.08.006

144.

World Health Organization. (2011). Burden of disease from environmental noise: Quantification of healthy life years lost in Europe. WHO.

145.

C. D.

McNeely

Cedeño-Laurent

J. G.

Pan

W. C.

Adamkiewicz

Dominici

Lung

S. C.

H. J.

Spengler

J. D.

(2014). Linking student performance in Massachusetts elementary schools with the “greenness” of school surroundings using remote sensing. PLoS One, 9(10), e108548. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0108548

146.

Lum

(2019). The practice of proactive traffic stops. Policing: An International Journal, 43(2), 229–246. https://doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-06-2019-0089

147.

Zhao

(2019). Geographical patterns of traffic congestion in growing megacities: Big data analytics from Beijing. Cities, 92, 164–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.03.022

148.

Zhou

Troy

Morgan Grove

Jenkins

J. C.

(2009). Can money buy green? Demographic and socioeconomic predictors of lawn-care expenditures and lawn greenness in urban residential areas. Society & Natural Resources, 22(8), 744–760. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920802074330

149.

Zillmann

(1983). Transfer of excitation in emotional behavior. In Cacioppo

J. T.

Petty

R. E.

(Eds.), Social Psychophysiology (pp. 215–240). Guilford Press.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.57 MB

The Relationship Between City “Greenness” and Homicide in the US: Evidence Over a 30-Year Period

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References

Supplementary Material