Increasing droughts and water shortages are intensifying the need for residential water conservation. We identify and classify 24 water conservation studies using the information–motivation–behavioral skills (IMB) model by categorizing interventions based on content and water conservation effectiveness. This synthesis revealed several insights. First, all of the interventions used information, motivation, and/or behavioral skills, suggesting that water conservation interventions can be interpreted within the IMB framework. Second, interventions with two or more IMB components led to reductions in water usage, but the average effect sizes between different types of interventions were similar and there was a considerable range around these averages. To the extent that intervention effectiveness is driven by populations lacking specific IMB components, more elicitation research to identify gaps in specific populations could support greater effectiveness. Designing interventions explicitly with the IMB model would facilitate comparability across studies and could support a better understanding of water conservation interventions.
AitkenC. K.McmahonT. A.WearingA. J.FinlaysonB. L. (1994). Residential water use: Predicting and reducing consumption. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24(2), 136–158. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1994.tb00562.x
AttariS. Z.Poinsatte-JonesK.HintonK. (2017). Perceptions of water systems. Judgement and Decision Making, 12(3), 314–327. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2425
7.
AyresI.RasemanS.ShihA. (2013). Evidence from two large field experiments that peer comparison feedback can reduce residential energy usage. Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, 29(5), 992–1022. https://doi.org/10.1093/jleo/ews020
8.
BatesB. C.KundzewiczZ. W.PalutikofJ. P. (2008). Climate change and water (Technical paper). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
9.
BealC. D.GurungT. R.StewartR. A. (2016). Demand-side management for supply-side efficiency: Modeling tailored strategies for reducing peak residential water demand. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 6, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2015.11.005
10.
BernedoM.FerraroP. J.PriceM. (2014). The persistent impacts of norm-based messaging and their implications for water conservation. Journal of Consumer Policy, 37, 437–452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10603-014-9266-0
11.
BorensteinM.HedgesL. V.HigginsJ. P. T.RothsteinH. R. (2009). When does it make sense to perform a meta-analysis? In BorensteinM.HedgesL. V.HigginsJ. P. T.RothsteinH. R. (Eds.), Introduction to meta-analysis (pp. 357–364). John Wiley & Sons.
12.
BorisovaT.UsecheP. (2013). Exploring the effects of extension workshops on household water-use behavior. Extension Education Methods, 23(5), 668–676. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH.23.5.668
13.
BrandonA.FerraroP. J.ListJ. A.MetcalfeR. D.PriceM. K.RundhammerF. (2017). Do the effects of social nudges persist? Theory and evidence from 38 natural field experiments (NBER Working Paper No. 23277). National Bureau of Economic Research.
14.
BrennanD.TapsuwanS.IngramG. (2007). The welfare costs of urban outdoor water restrictions. Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 51(3), 243–261. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8489.2007.00395.x
15.
BrentD. A.CookJ. H.OlsenS. (2015). Social comparisons, household water use, and participation in utility conservation programs: Evidence from three randomized trials. Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, 2(4), 597–627. https://doi.org/10.1086/683427
16.
BrentD. A.LottC.TaylorM.CookJ.RollinsK.StoddardS.. . . CookJ. (2017). Are normative appeals moral taxes? Evidence from a field experiment on water conservation (Louisiana State Department of Economics Working Papers 2017-07). Department of Economics, Louisiana State University.
17.
BruvoldW. H. (1979). Residential response to urban drought in central California. Water Resources Research, 15, 1297–1304. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR015i006p01297
18.
ChesnuttT. W.PekelneyD.SpachtJ. M. (2018). Lower water bills: The City of Los Angeles shows how water conservation and efficient water rates produce affordable and sustainable use. California Water Efficiency Partnership and the Alliance for Water Efficiency.
19.
CialdiniR. B.RenoR. R.KallgrenC. A. (1990). A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 58(6), 1015–1026. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015
20.
ClarkW. A.FinleyJ. C. (2007). Determinants of water conservation intention in Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria. Society & Natural Resources, 20, 613–627. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920701216552
21.
CookB. I.AultT. R.SmerdonJ. E. (2015). Unprecedented 21st century drought risk in the American Southwest and Central Plains. Science Advances, 1(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1400082
22.
CooperB.BurtonM.CraseL. (2011). Urban water restrictions: Attitudes and avoidance. Water Resources Research, 47(12), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010WR010226
De OliverM. (1999). Attitudes and inaction: A case study of the manifest demographics of urban water conservation. Environment and Behavior, 31(3), 372–394. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139169921972155
25.
DickersonC. A.ThibodeauR.AronsonE.MillerD. (1992). Using cognitive dissonance to encourage water conservation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22(11), 841–854. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1992.tb00928.x
26.
DiffenbaughN. S.SwainD. L.ToumaD. (2015). Anthropogenic warming has increased drought risk in California. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(13), 3931–3936. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1422385112
FanelliD.IoannidisJ. P. A. (2013). US studies may overestimate effect sizes in softer research. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(37), 15031–15036. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1302997110
29.
FerraroP. J.MirandaJ. J. (2013). Heterogeneous treatment effects and mechanisms in information-based environmental policies: Evidence from a large-scale field experiment. Resource and Energy Economics, 35(3), 356–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reseneeco.2013.04.001
30.
FerraroP. J.MirandaJ. J.PriceM. K. (2011). The persistence of treatment effects with norm-based policy instruments: Evidence from a randomized environmental policy experiment. American Economic Review, 101(3), 318–322. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.101.3.318
31.
FerraroP. J.PriceM. K. (2013). Using non-pecuniary strategies to influence behavior: Evidence from a large-scale field experiment. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 95(1), 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
32.
FieldingK. S.RussellS.SpinksA.MankadA. (2012). Determinants of household water conservation: The role of demographic, infrastructure, behavior, and psychosocial variables. Water Resources Research, 48(10), Article W10510. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012WR012398
33.
FieldingK. S.SpinksA.RussellS.McCreaR.StewartR.GardnerJ. (2013). An experimental test of voluntary strategies to promote urban water demand management. Journal of Environmental Management, 114, 343–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.10.027
34.
FischhoffB.ScheufeleD. A. (2014). The science of science communication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(Suppl. 3), 14031–14032. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1414635111
35.
FishbeinM.AjzenI. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Addison-Wesley.
FisherJ. D.FisherW. A. (2000). Theoretical approaches to individual-level change in HIV risk behavior. In PetersonJ. L.DiClementeR. J. (Eds.), Handbook of HIV prevention (pp. 3–55). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4137-0_1
38.
FisherJ. D.FisherW. A.AmicoK. R.HarmanJ. (2006). An information-motivation-behavioral skills model of adherence to antiretroviral therapy. Health Psychology, 25(4), 462. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.25.4.462
39.
FisherW. A.FisherJ. D.AberizkK. (2018). Elicitation research. In BlantonH., et al. (Ed.), Measurement in social psychology. Taylor & Francis Group.
40.
FisherW. A.FisherJ. D.ShuperP. A. (2014). Social psychology and the fight against AIDS: An Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills Model for the prediction and promotion of health behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 50, 105–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800284-1.00003-5
41.
FrancoA.MalhotraN.SimonovitsG. (2014). Publication bias in the social sciences: Unlocking the file drawer. Science, 345(6203), 1502–1504. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1255484
42.
GellerE. S.EricksonJ. B.ButtramB. A. (1983). Attempts to promote residential water conservation with educational, behavioral and engineering strategies. Population and Environment, 6(2), 96–112. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01362290
43.
GoldsteinN. J.CialdiniR. B.GriskeviciusV. (2008). A room with a viewpoint: Using social norms to motivate environmental conservation in hotels. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(3), 472–482. https://doi.org/10.1086/586910
44.
GraftonR. Q.WardM. B. (2008). Prices versus rationing: Marshallian surplus and mandatory water restrictions. Economic Record, 84(Suppl.), 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4932.2008.00483.x
45.
GraftonR. Q.WardM. B.ToH.KompasT. (2011). Determinants of residential water consumption: Evidence and analysis from a 10-country household survey. Water Resources Research, 47(8), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010WR009685
46.
HahnR.MetcalfeR. D.NovgorodskyD.PriceM. K. (2016). The behavioralist as policy designer: The need to test multiple treatments to meet multiple targets (NBER Working Paper No. 22886). http://www.nber.org/papers/w22886
47.
HallsworthM.ListJ. A.MetcalfeR. D.VlaevI. (2017). The behavioralist as tax collector: Using natural field experiments to enhance tax compliance. Journal of Public Economics, 148, 14–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2017.02.003
48.
HaqueM. M.HagareD.RahmanA.KibriaG. (2014). Quantification of water savings due to drought restrictions in water demand forecasting models. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 140(11), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)wr.1943-5452.0000423
49.
HarlandP.StaatsH.WilkeH. A. M. (1999). Explaining proenvironmental intention and behavior by personal norms and the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29(12), 2505–2528. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb00123.x
50.
HurlimannA.DolnicarS.MeyerP. (2009). Understanding behaviour to inform water supply management in developed nations: A review of literature, conceptual model and research agenda. Journal of Environmental Management, 91(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.07.014
51.
InmanD.JeffreyP. (2006). A review of residential water conservation tool performance and influences on implementation effectiveness. Urban Water Journal, 3(3), 127–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/15730620600961288
52.
JessoeK.LadeG. E.LogeF.SpangE. (2017). Spillovers from behavioral interventions: Experimental evidence from water and energy use (Economic Working Papers E2e 033). Department of Economics, Iowa State University. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/econ_workingpapers/52
53.
JooH. H.LeeJ.ParkS. (2018). Every drop counts: A water conservation experiment with hotel guests. Economic Inquiry, 56(3), 1788–1808. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12563
54.
KatzD.GrinsteinA.KronrodA.NisanU. (2016). Evaluating the effectiveness of a water conservation campaign: Combining experimental and field methods. Journal of Environmental Management, 180, 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.05.049
55.
KenneyD. S.KleinR. A.ClarkM. P. (2004). Use and effectiveness of municipal water restrictions during drought in Colorado. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 40(1), 77–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2004.tb01011.x
KramerJ.NoronhaS.VergoJ. (2000). A user-centered design approach to personalization. Communications of the ACM, 43(8), 45–48.
58.
KurzT.DonaghueN.WalkerI. (2005). Utilizing a social-ecological framework to promote water and energy conservation: A field experiment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35(6), 1281–1300.
59.
LamS. P. (1999). Predicting intentions to conserve water from the theory of planned behavior, perceived moral obligation, and perceived water right. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29(5), 1058–1071. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb00140.x
60.
LarimerM. E.NeighborsC. (2003). Normative misperception and the impact of descriptive and injunctive norms on college student gambling. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 17(3), 235–243. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.17.3.235
61.
Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. (2010). 2010 urban water management plan.
62.
MallettR. K.MelchioriK. J. (2016). Creating a water-saver self-identity reduces water use in residence halls. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 47, 223–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.07.001
63.
McClureT.SpenceR. (2006). Don’t mess with Texas: The story behind the legend. Idea City Press.
64.
MichieS.JohnstonM.FrancisJ.HardemanW.EcclesM. (2008). From theory to intervention: Mapping theoretically derived behavioural determinants to behaviour change techniques. Applied Psychology, 57(4), 660–680. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00341.x
65.
MoherD.LiberatiA.TetzlaffJ.AltmanD. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7), Article e1000097.
66.
MooreS.MurphyM.WatsonR. (1994). A longitudinal study of domestic water conservation behavior. Population and Environment, 16(2), 175–189.
67.
MurphyM.WatsonR.MooreS. (1991). Encouraging water saving: The role of knowledge, attitudes, and intention. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 7, 71–78.
68.
OlmsteadS. M. (2010). The economics of managing scarce water resources. Review of Environmental Economics and Policy, 4(2), 179–198. https://doi.org/10.1093/reep/req004
69.
OlmsteadS. M.StavinsR. N. (2009). Comparing price and nonprice approaches to urban water conservation. Water Resources Research, 45(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008WR007227
70.
PalazzoJ.LiuO. R.StillingerT.SongR.WangY.HiroyasuE. H. T.. . . TagueC. (2017). Urban responses to restrictive conservation policy during drought. Water Resources Research, 53(5), 4459–4475. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016WR020136
71.
PerkinsH. W. (2002). Social norms and the prevention of alcohol misuse in collegiate contexts. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14, 164–172. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsas.2002.s14.164
72.
PittmanT. S. (1998). Motivation. In GilbertD. T.FiskeS. T.LindzeyG. (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 549–590). McGraw-Hill.
73.
ProchaskaJ. O.DiClementeC. C.NorcrossJ. C. (1992). In search of how people change. Applications to addictive behaviors. American Psychologist, 47(9), 1102–1114. https://doi.org/10.3109/10884609309149692
74.
ReeseG.LoewK.SteffgenG. (2014). A towel less: Social norms enhance pro-environmental behavior in hotels. The Journal of Social Psychology, 154(2), 97–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2013.855623
75.
RenoR. R.CialdiniR. B.KallgrenC. A. (1993). The transsituational influence of social norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(1), 104–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.1.104
76.
RenwickM. E.RenwickM. E.ArchibaldS. O. (2019). Demand side management policies for residential water use: Who bears the conservation burden?Economics of Water Resources, 74(3), 373–389. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351159289-24
77.
RichetinJ.PeruginiM.MondiniD.HurlingR. (2016). Conserving water while washing hands the immediate and durable impacts of descriptive norms. Environment and Behavior, 48(2), 343–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916514543683
78.
RussellS.FieldingK. (2010). Water demand management research: A psychological perspective. Water Resources Research, 46(5), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR008408
79.
RyanR. M.DeciE. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychological Association and EcoAmerica, 55(1), 68–78.
80.
SchultzP. W. (1999). Changing behavior with normative feedback interventions: A field experiment on curbside recycling. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21(1), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1207/15324839951036533
81.
SchultzP. W.MessinaA.TronuG.LimasE. F.GuptaR.EstradaM. (2016). Personalized normative feedback and the moderating role of personal norms: A field experiment to reduce residential water consumption. Environment and Behavior, 48(5), 686–710. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916514553835
82.
SchultzP. W.NolanJ. M.CialdiniR. B.GoldsteinN. J.GriskeviciusV. (2007). The constructive, destructive, and reconstructive power of social norms. Psychological Science, 18(5), 429–434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01917.x
83.
SchultzP. W.NolanJ. M.CialdiniR. B.GoldsteinN. J.GriskeviciusV. (2018). The constructive, destructive, and reconstructive power of social norms: Reprise. Perspecitves on Psychological Science, 13(2), 249–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617693325
84.
SeacatJ. D.NorthrupD. (2010). An information-motivation-behavioral skills assessment of curbside recycling behavior. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30(4), 393–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.02.002
85.
SeyranianV.SinatraG. M.PolikoffM. S. (2015). Comparing communication strategies for reducing residential water consumption. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 41, 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.11.009
86.
SisserJ. M.NelsonK. C.LarsonK. L.OgdenL. A.PolskyC.ChowdhuryR. R. (2016). Lawn enforcement: How municipal policies and neighborhood norms influence homeowner residential landscape management. Landscape and Urban Planning, 150, 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.02.011
87.
SmoakN. D.Scott-SheldonL. A. J.JohnsonB. T.CareyM. P. (2006). Sexual risk reduction interventions do not inadvertently increase the overall frequency of sexual behavior. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 41(3), 374–384. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.qai.0000185575.36591.fc
88.
SparkmanG.WaltonG. M. (2017). Dynamic norms promote sustainable behavior, even if it is counternormative. Psychological Science, 28(11), 1663–1674. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617719950
89.
StegL.VlekC. (2009). Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: An integrative review and research agenda. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29(3), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.10.004
90.
SternP. C. (2000). Toward a coherent theory of environmentally significant behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 56(3), 407–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00175
StoutenboroughJ. W.VedlitzA. (2014). Public attitudes toward water management and drought in the United States. Water Resources Management, 28(3), 697–714. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-013-0509-7
93.
SymeG. J.NancarrowB. E.SeligmanC. (2000). The evaluation of information campaigns to promote voluntary household water conservation. Evaluation Review, 24(6), 539–578. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193841X0002400601
94.
TerryD. J.HoggM. A. (2001). Attitudes, behavior, and social context: The role of norms and group membership in social influence processes. In ForgasJ. P.WilliamsK. D. (Eds.), Social influence: Direct and indirect processes (pp. 236–270). Psychology Press.
TiefenbeckV.StaakeT.RothK.SachsO. (2013). For better or for worse? Empirical evidence of moral licensing in a behavioral energy conservation campaign. Energy Policy, 57, 160–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.01.021
97.
TijsM. S.KarremansJ. C.VelingH.de LangeM. A.van MeegerenP.LionR. (2017). Saving water to save the environment: Contrasting the effectiveness of environmental and monetary appeals in a residential water saving intervention. Social Influence, 12(2–3), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2017.1333967
98.
TrumboC. W.KeefeG. J. O. (2005). Intention to conserve water: Environmental values, reasoned action, and information effects across time. Society & Natural Resources, 18(6), 573–585. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920590948002
99.
TrumboC. W.O’KeefeG. J. (2001). Intension to conserve water: Environmental values, planned behavior, and information effects. A comparison of three communities sharing a watershed. Society & Natural Resources, 14(10), 889–899. https://doi.org/10.1080/089419201753242797
100.
WaltonA.HumeM. (2011). Creating positive habits in water conservation: The case of the Queensland Water Commission and the Target 140 campaign. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 16(3), 215–224. https://doi.org/10.1002/nvsm.421
101.
WebsterJ.WatsonR. T. (2016). Analyzing the past to prepare for the future: Writing a literature review. MIS Quarterly, 26(2), xiii–xxiii.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
