In this study, the authors tested the viability of the expanded nigrescence (NT-E) model as operationalized by Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) scores using confirmatory factor analyses. Participants were 594 Black college students from the Southeastern United States. Results indicated a good fit for NT-E's proposed six-factor structure. One-factor and two-factor higher-order models also yielded good fit indices, although several coefficients in the one-factor higher-order model were not salient or statistically significant. In sum, the results provide strong support for the CRIS as an operationalization of NT-E. The authors suggest that CRIS scores can be used in studies concerned with drawing inferences about the effects of racial identity attitudes.
Ashmore, R.D., Deaux, K., & McLaughlin-Volpe, T. (2004). An organizing framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality . Psychological Bulletin, 130, 80-114.
2.
Baldwin, J.A. (1996). An introduction to the African self-consciousness scale. In R. Jones (Ed.), Handbook of test and measurements for Black populations (pp. 207-215). Hampton, VA: Cobb & Henry.
Baldwin, J.A., & Bell, Y.R. (1985). The African Self-Consciousness Scale: An Africentric personality questionnaire. Western Journal of Black Studies , 9, 61-68.
5.
Benson, J. (1998). Developing a strong program of construct validation: A test anxiety example. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 17, 10-22.
6.
Benson, J., & Nasser, F. (1998). On the use of factor analysis as a research tool . Journal of Vocational Education Research, 23, 13-33.
Bernstein, I.H., & Teng, G. (1989). Factoring items and factoring scales are different: Spurious evidence for multidimensionality due to item categorization. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 467-477.
9.
Brown, T.A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research . New York: Guilford.
10.
Burlew, A.K., & Smith, L.R. (1991). Measures of racial identity: An overview and a proposed framework. Journal of Black Psychology, 17, 53-71.
11.
Byrne, B.M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
12.
Byrne, B.M. (2006). Structural equation modeling with EQS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
13.
Chappell, C.D. (1995) Construct validity of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 55 (10-A), 3136.
14.
Clark, K.B., & Clark, M.P. (1947). Racial identification and preference in Negro children. In T. M. Newcomb & E. L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology (pp. 169-178). New York: Holt.
15.
Clark, K.B., & Clark, M.P. (1950). Emotional factors in racial identification and preference in Negro children. Journal of Negro Education, 19, 341-350.
16.
Cokley, K.O. (2002). Testing Cross's revised racial identity model: An examination of the relationship between racial identity and internalized racialism. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 476-483.
17.
Cokley, K.O. (2005). Racial(ized) identity, ethnic identity, and Afrocentric values: Conceptual and methodological challenges in understanding AfricanAmerican Identity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 517-526.
18.
Cokley, K.O. (2007). Critical issues in the measurement of ethnic and racial identity: A referendum on the state of the field. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 224-234.
19.
Cokley, K.O., Caldwell, L.D., Miller, K., & Muhammad, G. (2001). Content analysis of the Journal of Black Psychology (1985-1999). Journal of Black Psychology, 27, 424-438.
20.
Cokley, K.O., & Helm, K. (2001). Testing the construct validity of scores on the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34, 80-95.
21.
Cross, W. (1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African-American identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
22.
Cross, W.E., Jr. (1971). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience: Toward a psychology of Black liberation. Black World, 20, 13-27.
23.
Cross, W.E., Jr., & Vandiver, B.J. (2001). Nigrescence theory and measurement: Introducing the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS). In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed., pp. 371-393). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
24.
Fan, X., & Thompson, B. (2003). Confidence intervals about score reliability coefficients . In B. Thompson (Ed.), Score reliability: Contemporary thinking on reliability issues (pp. 69-84). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
25.
Ferrando, P.J., & Lorenzo-Seva, U. (2000). Unrestricted versus restricted factor analysis of multidimensional test items: Some aspects of the problem and some suggestions. Psicológica, 21, 301-323.
26.
Fischer, A.R., & Moradi, B. (2001). Racial and ethnic identity: Recent developments and needed directions. In J. G. Ponterotto , J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed., pp. 341-370). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
27.
Fischer, A.R., Tokar, D.M., & Serna, G.S. (1998). Validity and construct contamination of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale-Long Form. Journal of Counseling Psychology , 45, 212-224.
28.
Fisher, C.B., Jackson, J.F., & Villarruel, F.A. (1998). The study of African American and Latin American children and youth. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & R. M. Lerner (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 1145-1207). New York: Wiley.
29.
Franzosi, R. (2004). From words to numbers: Narrative, data, and social science. New York: Cambridge University Press.
30.
Gardner-Kitt, D.L., & Worrell, F.C. (2007). Measuring nigrescence attitudes in school-aged adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 187-202.
31.
Graham, J.M., Guthrie, A.C., & Thompson, B. (2003). Consequences of not interpreting structure coefficients in published research: A reminder. Structural Equation Modeling , 10, 142-153.
Helm, K.M. (2002). A theoretical and psychometric analysis of the revised Black racial identity development model and the multidimensional model of racial identity: Outcomes on the Revised African American Acculturation Scale-33. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 62 (10-B), 4833.
34.
Helms, J.E. (1990). An overview of Black racial identity theory. In J. E. Helms (Ed.), Black and White racial identity: Theory, research and practice (pp. 9-32). New York: Greenwood.
35.
Helms, J.E., & Parham, T.A. (1990). Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (Form RIAS-B) . In J. E. Helms (Ed.), Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 245-247). New York: Greenwood Press.
36.
Helms, J.E., & Parham, T.A. (1996). The development of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Handbook of tests and measurements for Black populations (Vol. 2, pp. 167-174). Hampton, VA: Cobb & Henry.
37.
Henson, R.K. (2001). Understanding internal consistency reliability estimates: A conceptual primer on coefficient alpha. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34, 177-189.
38.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P.M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3, 424-453.
39.
John, O.P., Donahue, E.M., & Kentle, R.L. (1991). The Big Five Inventory: Versions 4a and 54. Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley, Institute of Social and Personality Research .
40.
Jones, H.L., Cross, W.E., Jr., & DeFour, D.C. (2007). Race-related stress, racial identity attitudes, and mental health among Black women. Journal of Black Psychology, 33, 208-231.
41.
Lemon, R.L., & Waehler, C.A. (1996). A test of the stability and construct validity of the Black Racial Identity Scale, Form B (RIAS_B) and the White Racial Identity Scale (WRIAS). Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 29, 77-85.
42.
MacCallum, R.C., Browne, M.W., & Sugawara, H.M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1, 130-149.
43.
MacCallum, R.C., Wegener, D.T., Uchino, B.N., & Fabrigar, L.R. (1993). The problem of equivalent models in applications of covariance structure analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 185-199.
44.
Meehl, P.E. (1990). Why summaries of research on psychological theories are often uninterpretable. Psychological Reports, 66, 195-244.
Myers, M., & Thompson, V.L. (1994). Africentricity: An analysis of two culture specific instruments. Western Journal of Black Studies, 18, 179-184.
47.
Ogbu, J.U. (2004). Collective identity and the burden of ``acting White'' in Black history, community, and education. Urban Review, 36, 1-35.
48.
Oyserman, D., Kemmelmeier, M., Fryberg, S., Brosh, H., & Hart-Johnson, T. (2003). Racial-ethnic self-schemas . Social Psychology Quarterly, 66, 333-347.
49.
Parham, T.A., & Helms, J.E. (1981). The influence of Black students' racial identity attitudes on preference for counselor's race. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 250-258.
50.
Paulhus, D.L. (1984). Two-component model of socially desirable responding . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 598-609.
51.
Paulhus, D.L. (1991). Measurement and control of response bias. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes (pp. 17-59). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
52.
Phinney, J.S. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156-176.
53.
Ponterotto, J.G., & Mallinckrodt, B. (2007). Introduction to the special section on racial and ethnic identity in counseling psychology: Conceptual and methodological challenges and proposed solutions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 219-223.
54.
Ponterotto, J.G., & Wise, S.L. (1987). Construct validity study of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 218-223.
55.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
56.
Sabnani, H.B., & Ponterotto, J.G. (1992). Racial/ethnic minority-specific instrumentation in counseling research: A review, critique, and recommendations . Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development , 24, 161-187.
57.
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P.M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors on covariance structure analysis. In A. von Eye & C. C. Clogg (Eds.), Latent variables analysis (pp. 399-419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
58.
Sellers, R.M., Rowley, S.A.J., Chavous, T.M., Shelton, J.N., & Smith, M.A. (1997). Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity: A preliminary investigation of reliability and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 805-815.
59.
Sellers, R.M., Smith, M.A., Shelton, J.N., Rowley, S.A., & Chavous, T.M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African-American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 18-39.
60.
Simmons, C., Worrell, F.C., & Berry, J.M. (2006, August). Psychometric properties of scores on three Black racial identity scales. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans.
61.
Spencer, M.B., & Markstrom-Adams, C. (1990). Identity processes among racial and ethnic minority children in America. Child Development , 61, 290-310.
62.
Steele, C.M. (1997). A threat in the air. How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
63.
Steele, C.M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69, 797-811.
64.
Stokes, J.E., Murray, C.B., Peacock, M.J., & Kaiser, R.T. (1994). Assessing the reliability, factor structure, and validity of the African Self-Consciousness Scale in a general population of African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 20, 62-74.
65.
Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. Washington, DC : American Psychological Association.
66.
Tokar, D.M., & Fischer, A.R. (1998). Psychometric analysis of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale- Long Form. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 31, 138-149.
Vandiver, B.J., Fhagen-Smith, P.E., Cokley, K.O., Cross, W.E., Jr., & Worrell, F.C. (2001). Cross's nigrescence model: From theory to scale to theory. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development , 29, 174-200.
70.
White, A.M. (2002) Gender role conflict and racial identity as indicators of Black men's help seeking attitudes. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 63 (5-B), 2567.
71.
Worrell, F.C. (2000). A validity study of scores on the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure based on a sample of academically talented adolescents. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60, 439-447.
72.
Worrell, F.C., Conyers, L.M., Mpofu, E., & Vandiver, B.J. (2006). Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) scores in a sample of adolescents from Zimbabwe. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 6, 35-59.
73.
Worrell, F.C., & Cross, W.E., Jr. (2004). The reliability and validity of Big Five Inventory scores with African American college students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 32, 7-31.
74.
Worrell, F.C., Cross, W.E., Jr., & Vandiver, B.J. (2001). Nigrescence theory: Current status and challenges for the future. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 29, 201-210.
75.
Worrell, F.C., & Gardner-Kitt, D.L. (2006). The relationship between racial and ethnic identity in Black adolescents: The Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) and the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM). Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 6, 293-315.
Worrell, F.C., Vandiver, B.J., Cross, W.E., Jr., & Fhagen-Smith, P.E. (2004). The reliability and validity of Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) scores in a sample of AfricanAmerican adults. Journal of Black Psychology, 30, 489-505.
78.
Worrell, F.C., Vandiver, B.J., Schaefer, B.A., Cross, W.E., Jr., & Fhagen-Smith, P.E. (2006). Generalizing nigrescence profiles: A cluster analysis of Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) scores in three independent samples. Counseling Psychologist, 34, 519-547.
79.
Wright, E.W. (2003). An exploratory study of rape myth acceptance among African American women. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 63 (9-B), 4392.
80.
Yanico, B.J., Swanson, J.L., & Tokar, D.M. (1994). A psychometric examination of the Black Racial Identity Scale-Form B. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44, 218-234.
