Self-Efficacy,Subjective Norms,Self-Regulated Learning: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior With GEAR UP Students

Abstract

Racial-ethnic and low-income youth have differential access to key educational resources that promote learning and college readiness. College readiness programs provide activities, resources, and experiences that support learning. Yet little is known about the influence of adults and peers in shaping students’ beliefs and expectations as learners. This study examined the extent to which GEAR UP adolescent self-regulated learning was influenced by perceptions of adult and peer behavioral expectations. Among the 118 adolescent participants, perceived behavioral expectations of a parent or guardian was found to be the strongest determinant of self-regulated learning. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Keywords

college readiness students change social justice urban education GEAR UP

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adelman

(2006). The toolbox revisited: Paths to degree completion from high school through college. U.S. Department of Education. https://eric.ed.gov/?q=The+toolbox+revisited%3a+Paths+to+degree+completion+from+high+school+through+college&id=ED490195

Ajzen

(1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179.

Allen

Bonous-Hammarth

Suh

S. A.

(2004). Who goes to college? High school context, academic preparation, the college choice process, and college attendance. In St. John

E. P.

(Ed.), Improving access and college success for diverse students: Studies of the Gates Millennium Scholars Program (Vol. 20, pp. 71–114). AMS Press, Inc.

Allen

Griffin

K. A.

(2006). Mo’ money, mo’ problems? High-achieving Black high school students’ experiences with resources, racial climate, and resilience. The Journal of Negro Education, 75(3), 478–494.

Babbie

E. R.

(2010). The practice of social research. Wadsworth Cengage.

Bail

F. T.

Zhang

Tachiyama

G. T.

(2008). Effects of a self-regulated learning course on the academic performance and graduation rate of college students in an academic support program. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 39(1), 54–73.

Balz

F. J.

Esten

M. R.

(1998). Fulfilling private dreams, serving public priorities: An analysis of TRIO students’ success at independent colleges and universities. The Journal of Negro Education, 67(4), 333–345.

Beer

Le Blanc

Miller

M. J.

(2008). Summer learning camps: Helping students to prepare for college. College Student Journal, 42(3), 930–938.

Bentler

P. M.

Chou

C. P.

(1987). Practical issues in structural modeling. Sociological Methods & Research, 16(1), 78–117.

10.

Berkner

Chavez

(1997). Access to postsecondary education for the 1992 high school graduates. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics. https://eric.ed.gov/?q=Access+to+postsecondary+education+for+the+1992+high+school+graduates.&id=ED413854

11.

Blanchett

W. J.

(2006). Disproportionate representation of African American students in special education: Acknowledging the role of White privilege and racism. Educational Researcher, 35(6), 24–28.

12.

Blanchett

W. J.

(2009). A retrospective examination of urban education from Brown to the resegregation of African Americans in special education—it is time to “go for broke. Urban Education, 44(4), 370–388.

13.

Bowman

P. J.

(1990). Coping with provider role strain: Adaptive cultural resources among Black husband-fathers. Journal of Black Psychology, 16(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984900162002

14.

Bowman

P. J.

(2006). Role strain and adaptation issues in the strength-based model: Diversity, multilevel, and life-span considerations. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(1), 118–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000005282374

15.

Byrne

B. M.

(2013). Structural equation modeling with Mplus. Routledge.

16.

Cabrera

A. F.

Deil-Amen

Prabhu

Terenzini

Lee

Franklin

(2006). Increasing the college preparedness of at-risk students. Journal of Latinos and Education, 5(2), 79–97.

17.

Carter

P. L.

Welner

K. G.

Ladson-Billings

(2013). Closing the opportunity gap: What America must do to give every child an even chance. Oxford University Press.

18.

Cates

J. T.

Schaefle

S. E.

(2011). The relationship between a college preparation program and at-risk students’ college readiness. Journal of Latinos and Education, 10(4), 320–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348431.2011.605683

19.

Choy

S. P.

(2001). Students whose parents did not go to college: Postsecondary access, persistence, and attainment. Findings from the condition of education. National Center for Education Statistics.

20.

Coleman

J. S.

(1968). Equality of educational opportunity. Integration of Education, 6(5), 19–28.

21.

Conley

D. T.

(2008). Rethinking college readiness. New Directions for Higher Education, 2008, 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/he.321

22.

Conley

D. T.

(2013). Proficiency approaches for making more students college and career ready. In Perna

L. W.

Jones

A. P.

(Eds.), The state of college access and completion: Improving college success for students from underrepresented groups (pp. 57–76). Routledge.

23.

Conley

D. T.

McGaughy

C. L.

Kirtner

Valk

Martinez-Wenzl

M. T.

(2010). College readiness practices at 38 high schools and the development of the CollegeCareerReady Diagnostic Tool [Paper presentation]. American Educational Research Association, Denver, CO.

24.

Darling-Hammond

(2013). Inequality and school resources: What will it take to close the opportunity gap. In Carter

P. L.

Welner

K. G.

(Eds.), Closing the opportunity gap: What America must do to give every child an even chance (pp. 77–97). Oxford University Press.

25.

Diamond

J. B.

Randolph

Spillane

J. P.

(2004). Teachers’ expectations and sense of responsibility for student learning: The importance of race, class, and organizational habitus. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 35(1), 75–98. https://doi.org/10.2307/3651334

26.

Durlak

J. A.

DuPre

E. P.

(2008). Implementation matters: A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(3–4), 327–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-008-9165-0

27.

Dusenbury

Brannigan

Falco

Hansen

W. B.

(2003). A review of research on fidelity of implementation: Implications for drug abuse prevention in school settings. Health Education Research, 18(2), 237–256. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/18.2.237

28.

Eccles

J. S.

Vida

M. N.

Barber

(2004). The relation of early adolescents’ college plans and both academic ability and task-value beliefs to subsequent college enrollment. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 24(1), 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431603260919

29.

Ellis

J. M.

Helaire

L. J.

(2018). The effects of adolescent self-regulated learning on engagement in a college access program: An exploratory study. AERA Open, 4(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858418756051

30.

Enders

Bandalos

(2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8(3), 430–457.

31.

Epps

E. G.

(1995). Race, class, and educational opportunity: Trends in the sociology of education. Sociological Forum, 10(4), 593–608. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02095770

32.

Fishbein

Ajzen

(2010). Predicting and changing behavior: The reasoned action approach. Psychology Press.

33.

Gandara

(2001). Paving the way to postsecondary education k-12 intervention programs for underrepresented youth. Report of the National Postsecondary Education Cooperative Working Group on access to postsecondary education. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED458340.pdf

34.

Gore

P. A.

(2006). Academic self-efficacy as a predictor of college outcomes: Two incremental validity studies. Journal of Career Assessment, 14(1), 92–115.

35.

Gregory

Cornell

Fan

(2011). The relationship of school structure and support to suspension rates for Black and White high school students. American Educational Research Journal, 48(4), 904–934.

36.

Hall

R. J.

Snell

A. F.

Foust

M. S.

(1999). Item parceling strategies in SEM: Investigating the subtle effects of unmodeled secondary constructs. Organizational Research Methods, 2(3), 233–256.

37.

Hurtado

Nelson-Laird

T. F.

Perorarzio

T. E.

(2004). The transition to college for low-income students: The impact of the GMS Program. In St. John

E. P.

(Ed.), Improving access and college success for diverse students: Studies of the Gates Millennium Scholars Program (Vol. 20, pp. 155–182). AMS Press, Inc.

38.

Jackson

Knight-Manuel

(2019). “Color does not equal consciousness”: Educators of color learning to enact a sociopolitical consciousness. Journal of Teacher Education, 70(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487118783189

39.

Jones

K. R.

Van Belle

L. A.

Johnson

G. V.

Simmons

R. W.

(2014). Beyond the Common Core and the politics of education reform: The role of school counselors and teachers in facilitating the college and career readiness of urban students. In Zamani-Gallaher

E. M.

(Ed.), The Obama administration and educational reform (pp. 45–70). Emerald Group.

40.

Jones

M. H.

Alexander

J. M.

Estell

D. B.

(2010). Homophily among peer groups members’ perceived self-regulated learning. Journal of Experiential Education, 78(3), 378–394.

41.

Kantamneni

McCain

M. R. C.

Shada

Hellwege

M. A.

Tate

(2018). Contextual factors in the career development of prospective first-generation college students: An application of social cognitive career theory. Journal of Career Assessment, 26(1), 183–196.

42.

Kezar

(2007). A tale of two cultures: Schools and universities in partnership for school reform and student success. Metropolitan Universities, 18(4), 28–47.

43.

Kitsantas

Winsler

Huie

(2008). Self-regulation and ability predictors of academic success during college: A predictive validity study. Journal of Advanced Academics, 20(1), 42–68.

44.

Kline

R. B.

(2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Guilford Publications.

45.

Knight-Manuel

M. G.

Marciano

J. E.

Wilson

Jackson

Vernikoff

Zuckerman

K. G.

Watson

V. W. M.

(2019). “It’s all possible”: Urban educators’ perspectives on creating a culturally relevant, schoolwide, college-going culture for Black and Latino male students. Urban Education, 54(1), 35–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085916651320

46.

Ladson-Billings

(2013). Lack of achievement or loss of opportunity? In Carter

P. L.

Welner

K. G.

(Eds.), Closing the opportunity gap: What America must do to give every child an even chance (pp. 11–24). Oxford University Press.

47.

MacCallum

R. C.

Browne

M. W.

Sugawara

H. M.

(1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1(2), 130–149.

48.

Malin

J. R.

Hackmann

D. G.

(2017). Enhancing students’ transitions to college and careers: A case study of distributed leadership practice in supporting a high school career academy model. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 16(1), 54–79.

49.

Martinez

R. R.

Baker

S. B.

Young

(2017). Promoting career and college readiness, aspirations, and self-efficacy: Curriculum field test. The Career Development Quarterly, 65(2), 173–188.

50.

Mega

Ronconi

De Beni

(2014). What makes a good student? How emotions, self-regulated learning, and motivation contribute to academic achievement. Journal of Education & Psychology, 106(1), 121–131.

51.

Milner

H. R.

(2012). Beyond a test score: Explaining opportunity gaps in educational practice. Journal of Black Studies, 43(6), 693–718.

52.

Morgan

Sinatra

Eschenauer

(2015). A comprehensive partnership approach increasing high school graduation rates and college enrollment of urban economically disadvantaged youth. Education and Urban Society, 47(5), 596–620. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124514536437

53.

Nagaoka

Farrington

C. A.

Roderick

Allensworth

Keyes

T. S.

Johnson

D. W.

Beechum

N. O.

(2013). Readiness for college: The role of noncognitive factors and context. Voices in Urban Education, 38, 45–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1446.2011.00945.x

54.

Noonan

Kulbok

Yan

(2011). Intention to smoke tobacco using waterpipe among students in a southeastern U.S. college. Public Health Nursing, 28(6), 494–502.

55.

O’Connor

Hill

L. D.

Robinson

S. R.

(2009). Who’s at risk in school and what’s race got to do with it? Review of Research in Education, 33(1), 1–34.

56.

Perna

L. W.

(2002). Precollege outreach programs: Characteristics of programs serving historically underrepresented groups of students. Journal of College Student Personnel, 43(1), 64–83.

57.

Perna

L. W.

Titus

M. A.

(2005). The relationship between parental involvement as social capital and college enrollment: An examination of racial/ethnic group differences. The Journal of Higher Education, 76(5), 485–518.

58.

Quintana

S. M.

Maxwell

S. E.

(1999). Implications of recent developments in structural equation modeling for counseling psychology. The Counseling Psychologist, 27(4), 485–527.

59.

Ramdass

Zimmerman

B. J.

(2011). Developing self-regulation skills: The important role of homework. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(2), 194–218.

60.

Savitz-Romer

Bouffard

S. M.

(2012). Ready, willing, and able: A developmental approach to college access and success. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

61.

Schumacker

R. E.

Lomax

R. G.

(1996). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

62.

Slaughter

D. T.

Epps

E. G.

(1987). The home environment and academic achievement of Black American children and youth: An overview. The Journal of Negro Education, 56(1), 3–20.

63.

Spencer

M. B.

(1999). Social and cultural influences on school adjustment: The application of an identity-focused cultural ecological perspective. Educational Psychologist, 34(1), 43–57.

64.

St. John

E. P.

(2008). Finanicial inequality and academic success: Rethinking the foundations of research on college students. In Trent

W. T.

St. John

E. P.

(Eds.), Resources, assets, and strengths among successful diverse students (Vol. 23, pp. 201–228). AMS Press, Inc.

65.

St. John

E. P.

Fisher

Lee

Daun-Barnett

Williams

(2008). Educational opportunity in Indiana: Studies of the Twenty-first Century Scholars Program using student unit record data systems.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305316232_Educational_Opportunity_in_Indiana_Studies_of_the_Twentyfirst_Century_Scholars_Program_Using_State_Student_Record_Data_Systems

66.

St. John

E. P.

(2006). The impact of guarantees of financial aid on college enrollment: An evaluation of the Washington State Achievers Program. In St. John

E. P.

(Ed.), Public policy and equal educational opportunity: School reforms, postsecondary encouragement, and state policies on postsecondary education (Vol. 21, pp. 223–270). AMS Press Inc.

67.

St. John

E. P.

Fisher

(2011). Breaking through the access barrier: How academic capital formation can improve policy in higher education. Routledge.

68.

St. John

E. P.

Trent

W. T.

(2008). Understanding the contributions of GMS. In Trent

W. T.

St. John

E. P.

(Eds.), Resources, assets, and strengths among successful diverse students (Vol. 23, pp. 269–282). AMS Press, Inc.

69.

Swail

W. S.

Perna

L. W.

(2002). Pre-college outreach programs. In Tierney

W. G.

Hagedorn

S. L.

(Eds.), Increasing access to college: Extending possibilities for all students (pp. 15–34). State University of New York Press.

70.

Terry

D. J.

O’Leary

J. E.

(1995). The theory of planned behaviour: The effects of perceived behavioural control and self-efficacy. British Journal of Social Psychology, 34(2), 199–220.

71.

Tierney

W. G.

Hagedorn

L. S.

(2002). Increasing access to college: Extending possibilities for all students. State University of New York Press.

72.

Townsend

B. L.

(2000). The disproportionate discipline of African American learners: Reducing school suspensions and expulsions. Exceptional Children, 66(3), 381–391.

73.

Trent

W. T.

Nicholson

D. O.

McKillip

M. E. M.

(2008). Looking for love in all the wrong places: High school racial composition, the implications of strategic recruitment, and becoming a GMS scholar. In Trent

W. T.

St. John

E. P.

(Eds.), Resources, assets, and strengths among successful diverse students: Understanding the contributions of the Gates Millennium Scholars Program (Vol. 23, pp. 1–16). AMS Press, Inc.

74.

Ward

N. L.

(2006). Improving equity and access for low-income and minority youth into institutions of higher education. Urban Education, 41(1), 50–70.

75.

Watt

K. M.

Huerta

Lozano

(2007). A comparison study of AVID and GEAR UP 10th-grade students in two high schools in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 12(2), 185–212.

76.

Wolters

C. A.

Hussain

(2015). Investigating grit and its relations with college students’ self-regulated learning and academic achievement. Metacognition and Learning, 10(3), 293–311.

77.

Yampolskaya

Massey

O. T.

Greenbaum

P. E.

(2006). At-risk high school students in the “Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness” program (GEAR UP): Academic and behavioral outcomes. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 27(5), 457–475. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-006-0050-z

78.

Zimmerman

B. J.

(2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 82–91.

79.

Zimmerman

B. J.

Bandura

Martinez-Pons

(1992). Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29(3), 663–676.

80.

Zimmerman

B. J.

Schunk

D. H.

(2012). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theory, research, and practice. Springer Science & Business Media.