The ability to read has become a vital tool for success in society. Reading failure affects more than school achievement; it has implications for job choice and economic prosperity. Moreover, students in urban areas are at greater risk for poor reading outcomes. Given the necessity of basic reading skills, how can schools design and implement successful reading reforms? This article attempts to answer this question by linking current research on effective reading instruction with current theory and research on school governance and reform. The review begins with an overview of historical approaches to reading curriculum and instruction and then presents current research on effective early literacy practices for kindergarten through third grade. An overview of research on governance and management structures in high-performance schools is also presented. The article concludes with a discussion about school organization and policy issues that can support reading instruction.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adams, M. J.
(1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
2.
Adams, M. J.
, Treiman, R., & Pressley, M. (1998). Reading, writing, and literacy. In I. E. Sigel & K. A. Renninger (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Child psychology in practice (5th ed., pp. 275-355). New York: John Wiley.
3.
Allington, R. L.
(1991). Children who find learning to read difficult: School responses to diversity. In E. H. Hiebert (Ed.), Literacy for a diverse society: Perspectives, practices, and policies. New York: Teachers College Press.
4.
Allington, R. L.
(1994). The schools we have. The schools we need. The Reading Teacher, 48, 14-29.
5.
American Federation of Teachers
. (1998). Building on the best: Learning from what works. Washington, DC: Author.
6.
Anderson, L.
, Evertson, C., & Brophy, J. (1979). An experimental study of effective teaching in first-grade reading groups. Elementary School Journal, 79, 193-223.
7.
Anderson, R. C.
, Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., & Wilkinson, I.A.B. (1985). Becoming a nation of readers: The report of the commission on reading. Washington, DC: National Institute of Education.
8.
Au, K. H.
, & Asam, C. L. (1996). Improving the literacy achievement of low-economy students of diverse backgrounds. In M. F. Graves, B. Taylor, & P. van den Broek (Eds.), The first r: Every child’s right to read (pp. 199-221). New York: Teachers College Press.
9.
Au, K. H.
, & Kawakami, A. J. (1994). Cultural congruence in instruction. In E. R. Hollins, J. E. King, & W. Hayman (Eds.), Teaching diverse populations: Formulating a knowledge base. Albany: State University of New York Press.
10.
Ball, E.
, & Blachman, B. A. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten make a difference in early work recognition and developmental spelling?Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 49-66.
11.
Baumann, J.
, & Bergeron, B. S. (1993). Story map construction using children’s literature: Effects on first graders’ comprehension of central narrative elements. Journal of Reading Behavior, 24, 407-437.
12.
Beck, I.
, & Juel, C. (1992). The role of decoding in learning to read. American Educator, 19, 21-25.
13.
Beck, I. L.
, McKeown, M. G., Hamilton, R. L., & Kucan, L. (1997). Questioning the author: An approach for enhancing student engagement with text. Newark, NJ: International Reading Association.
14.
Bronfenbrenner, U.
, McClelland, P., Wethington, E., Moen, P., & Ceci, S. J. (1996). The state of Americans. New York: Free Press.
15.
Bryk, A. S.
, Thum, Y. M., Easton, J. Q., & Luppescu, S. (1998). Examining productivity: 10-year trends in Chicago public schools. Chicago: Consortium on Chicago School Research.
16.
Byrne, B.
, & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1991). Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 451-455.
17.
Byrne, B.
, & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1993). Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children: A 1-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 104-111.
18.
Cain, K.
(1996). Story knowledge and comprehension skills. In C. Cornoldi & J. Oakhill (Eds.), Reading comprehension difficulties: Processes and intervention (pp. 167-192). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
19.
California Department of Education
. (1998). California reading and language arts framework. Sacramento, CA: Author.
20.
Campbell, J. R.
, Voelkl, K. E., & Donhue, P. L. (1997). NAEP 1996 trends in academic progress (NECKS 97-985). Washington DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
21.
Chall, J. S.
(1967). Learning to read: The great debate. New York: McGraw-Hill.
22.
Cohen, D. K.
(1995). What is the system in systemic reform?Educational Researcher, 24(9), 11-17.
23.
Cunningham, A. E.
(1990). Explicit vs. implicit instruction in phonemic awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 50, 429-444.
24.
Cunningham, A. E.
, & Stanovich, K. E. (1998, Spring/Summer). What reading does for the mind. American Educator, 22, 8-15.
25.
Darling-Hammond, L.
(1999). Professional development for teachers: Setting the stage for learning from teaching. Santa Cruz, CA: Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning.
26.
Farr, M.
(1991). Dialects, culture, and teaching the English language arts. In J. Flood, J. M. Jensen, D. Lapp, & J. R. Squire (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English arts (pp. 365-371). New York: Macmillan.
27.
Feitelson, D.
(1993). Effects of listening to story reading on aspects of literacy acquisition in a diglossic situation. Reading Research Quarterly, 28, 70-79.
28.
Flesch, R.
(1955). Why Johnny can’t read. New York: Harper and Row.
29.
Foorman, B. R.
, Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, B. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (1997). The case for early reading intervention. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
30.
Gambrell, L. B.
(1995). Motivation matters. In W. M. Linek, E. G. Sturtevant, & L. Botha (Eds.), Generations of literacy: The 17th yearbook of the College Reading Association (pp. 2-24). Harrisonburg, VA: College Reading Association.
31.
Gambrell, L. B.
, & Morrow, L. M. (1996). Creating motivating contexts for literacy learning. In L. Baker, P. Afflerbach, & D. Reinking (Eds.), Developing engaged readers in school and home communities (pp. 115-136). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
32.
Gibs, W. W.
, & Fox, D. (1999, October). The false crisis in science education. Scientific American, 281, 87-93.
33.
Goodman, K. S.
(1992). I didn’t found whole language. The Reading Teacher, 46, 188-199.
34.
Griffin, N.
, & Wohlstetter, P. (2001). Building a plane while flying it: Early lessons from developing charter schools. Teachers College Record, 103(2).
35.
Hoffman, J. V.
, McCarthey, S. J., Elliot, B., Bayles, D. L., Price, D. P., Ferree, A., & Abbott, J. A. (1998). The literature-based basals in first-grade classrooms: Savior, Satan, or same-old. Reading Research Quarterly, 33, 168-197.
36.
International Reading Association
& the National Council of Teachers of English. (1989). Cases in literacy: An agenda for discussion. Newark, DE: Author.
37.
Johnston, P.
, Allington, R. L., Guice, S., & Brooks, G. W. (1998). Small change: A multilevel study of the implementation of literature-based instruction. Peabody Journal of Education, 73, 81-103.
38.
Joyce, B.
, & Showers, B. (1995). Student achievement through staff development: Fundamentals of school renewal (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.
39.
Kaestle, C.
(1991). Literacy in the United States. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
40.
Krashen, S. D.
(1996). Every person a reader. Culver City, CA: Language Education Associates.
41.
Leithwood, K. A.
(1992). The principal’s role in teacher development. In M. Fullan & A. Hargreaves (Eds.), Teacher development and educational change (pp. 86-103). Washington, DC: Falmer.
42.
Massell, D.
, Kirst, M., & Hoppe, M. (1997). Persistence and change: Standards-based reform in nine states. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Consortium for Policy Research in Education.
43.
McLoyd, V.
(1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 185-204.
44.
Moats, L. C.
(1999). Teaching reading is rocket science: What expert teachers of reading should know and be able to do. Washington, DC: American Federation of Teachers.
45.
Moats, L. C.
, Furry, A. R., & Brownell, N. (1998). Learning to read: Components of beginning reading instruction K-8. Sacramento: California State Board of Education.
46.
Mullis, I.V.S.
, Campbell, J. R., & Farstrup, A. E. (1993). NAEP 1992 reading report card for the nation and the states. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
47.
Murnane, R.
, & Levy, F. (1993). Why today’s high school-educated males earn less than their fathers did: The problem and an assessment of responses. Harvard Educational Review, 63(1), 1-19.
48.
National Center for Education Statistics
. (1998). NAEP 1998 reading report card for the nations and the states. Washington, DC: Author.
49.
National Reading Panel
. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: Author.
50.
Newmann, F. M.
, & Wehlage, G. G. (1995). Successful school restructuring. Madison, WI: Center on Organization and Restructuring Schools.
51.
Oakes, J.
(1985). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
52.
Odden, A. O.
, & Busch, C. (1998). Financing schools for high performance: Strategies for improving the use of educational resources. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
53.
Pressley, M.
(2000). What should comprehension instruction be the instruction of? In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reaching research (Vol. 3, pp. 545-561). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
54.
Purcell-Gates, V.
, McIntyre, E., & Freppon, P. A. (1995). Learning written storybook language in school: A comparison of low-SES children in skills-based and whole language classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 659-685.
55.
Reiman, A. J.
, & Theis-Sprinthall, L. (1993). Promoting the development of mentor teachers: Theory and research using guided reflection. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 26(3), 179-185.
56.
Robertson, P. J.
, Wohlstetter, P., & Mohrman, S. A. (1995). Generating curriculum and instructional innovations through school-based management. Educational Administration Quarterly, 31, 375-404.
57.
Rosenshine, B.
, Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1994). Reciprocal teaching: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 64, 479-530.
58.
Samuels, S. J.
(Ed.). (1996). Howling in the wind; academics try to change classroom reading instruction. New York: Teachers College Press.
59.
Scanlon, D. M.
, & Vellutino, F. (1996). Prerequisite skills, early instruction, and success in first-grade reading: Selected results from a longitudinal study. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Review, 2, 54-63.
60.
Scanlon, D. M.
, & Vellutino, F. (1997). A comparison of the instructional backgrounds and cognitive profiles of poor, average, and good readers who were initially identified as at-risk for reading failure. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1, 191-215.
61.
Sebring, P. B.
, Bryk, A. S., & Easton, J. Q. (1995). Charting Chicago school reform: Chicago teachers take stock. Chicago: Consortium on Chicago School Research.
62.
Simonsen, S.
, & Singer, H. (1992). Improving reading instruction in the content areas. In S. J. Samuels & A. E. Farstrup (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (pp. 200-219). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
63.
Smith, F.
(1992). Learning to read: The never-ending debate. Phi Delta Kappan, 73, 432-441.
64.
Smylie, M. A.
, Lazarus, V., & Brownlee-Conyers, J. (1996). Instructional outcomes of schoolbased participative decision making. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 18(3), 181-198.
65.
Snow, C. E.
, Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
66.
Snow, C. E.
, & Tabors, P. O. (1993). Language skills that relate to literacy. In B. Spodek & O. N. Saracho (Eds.), Language and literacy in early childhood education (pp. 1-20). New York: Teachers College Press.
67.
Stahl, S. A.
(1999). Why innovations come and go (and mostly go): The case of whole language. Educational Researcher, 28(8), 13-22.
68.
Stahl, S. A.
, Duffy-Hester, A. M., & Dougherty-Stahl, K. A. (1998). Everything you want to know about phonics (but were afraid to ask). Reading Research Quarterly, 35.
69.
Stanovich, K. E.
, West, R. F., Cunningham, A. E., Cipielewski, J., & Siddiqui, S. (1996). The role of inadequate print exposure as a determinant of reading comprehension problems. In C. Cornoldi & J. Oakhill (Eds.), Reading comprehension disabilities (pp. 15-32). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
70.
Tangel, D.
, & Blachman, B. (1995). Effect of phoneme awareness instruction on the invented spelling of first-grade children: A 1-year follow-up. Journal of Reading Behavior, 27, 153-185.
71.
Taylor, B. M.
, Pearson, P. D., Clark, K. F., & Walpole, S. (1999). Beating the odds in teaching all children to read. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement.
72.
Torgesen, J. K.
, Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1997). Prevention and remediation of severe reading disabilities: Keeping the end in mind. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1, 217-234.
73.
Trueba, H.
, Faltis, C. J., & Reyes, P. (Eds.). (1999). Educational Researcher, 28.
74.
Trueba, H.
, Worthy, J., Goldstein, L. S., Faltis, C. J., & Reyes, P. (Eds.). (2000). Educational Researcher, 29.
75.
Tunmer, W.
, Herriman, M. L., & Nesdale, A. R. (1990). Metalinguistic abilities and beginning reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 134-158.
76.
Tyack, D.
, & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
77.
Wohlstetter, P.
, & Briggs, K. L. (2001). Key elements of a successful school-based management strategy. School reform in Chicago: Lessons and opportunities (Report for the Chicago Community Trust). Chicago: Chicago Community Trust.
78.
Wohlstetter, P.
, & Mohrman, S. A. (1993). School-based management: Strategies for success. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Consortium for Policy Research in Education.
79.
Wohlstetter, P.
, Van Kirk, A. N., Robertson, P. J., & Mohrman, S. A. (1997). Organizing for successful school-based management. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
80.
Wubbels, T.
, Brekelmans, M., & Creton, H. A. (1993). Interpersonal behavior: Changes and improvements during the teaching career. In L. Kremer-Hayon, H. C. Vonk, & R. Fessler (Eds.), Teacher professional development: A multiple perspective approach (pp. 147-166). Berwyn, PA: Swets & Zeitlinger.
81.
Yuill, N.
, & Oakhill, J. (1991). Children’s problems in text comprehension: An experimental investigation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
