Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and the Family Environment: Examining the Association Between ACEs and Different Types of Juvenile Recidivism

Abstract

This study analyzes data from the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice on 12,143 youth leaving diversion placements to explore how Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) influence recidivism. Drawing on a social learning framework, this study examines the general versus specific effects of the ACE score and items on violent, property, and drug recidivism. Multivariate multilevel regression models revealed that higher ACE scores predict violent and property recidivism but not drug recidivism. Notably, ACEs are a stronger predictor of violent recidivism, driven by specific ACE items including exposure to violence and abuse. The results suggest that ACEs may be linked with recidivism via direct transmission, but the support is not unequivocal. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Keywords

adverse childhood experiences juvenile recidivism social learning family environment general versus specific effects

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aslam

M. V.

Swedo

Niolon

P. H.

Peterson

Bacon

Florence

(2024). Adverse childhood experiences among U.S. Adults: National and state estimates by adversity type, 2019–2020. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 67, 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2024.02.010

Astridge

W. W.

McDermott

Longhitano

(2023). A systematic review and meta-analysis on adverse childhood experiences: Prevalence in youth offenders and their effects on youth recidivism. Child Abuse & Neglect, 140, 106055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106055

Baglivio

M. T.

Epps

(2016). The interrelatedness of adverse childhood experiences among high-risk juvenile offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 14(3), 179–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204014566286

Baglivio

M. T.

Epps

Swartz

Huq

M. S.

Sheer

Hardt

N. S.

(2014). The prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) in the lives of juvenile offenders. Journal of Juvenile Justice, 3(2), 1–18. https://www.bscc.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/JOJJ0302.pdf

Baglivio

M. T.

Wolff

K. T.

(2023). Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and violent offending among juveniles with justice system involvement: Theory, research, and implications for policy. In Portwood

S. G.

Lawler

M. J.

Roberts

M. C.

(Eds.), Handbook of adverse childhood experiences: A framework for collaborative health promotion (pp. 123–136). Springer International Publishing.

Baglivio

M. T.

Wolff

K. T.

Piquero

A. R.

Bilchik

Jackowski

Greenwald

M. A.

Epps

(2016). Maltreatment, child welfare, and recidivism in a sample of deep-end crossover youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(4), 625–654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0407-9

Baird

Healy

Johnson

Bogie

Dankert

E. W.

Scharenbroch

(2013). A comparison of risk assessment instruments in juvenile justice. National Council on Crime and Delinquency. Retrieved October 1, 2025 from https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/grants/244477.pdf

Baldwin

S. A.

Imel

Z. E.

Braithwaite

S. R.

Atkins

D. C.

(2014). Analyzing multiple outcomes in clinical research using multivariate multilevel models. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82(5), 920–930. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035628

Barra

Aebi

D’Huart

Schmeck

Schmid

Boonmann

(2022). Adverse childhood experiences, personality, and crime: Distinct associations among a high-risk sample of institutionalized youth. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(3), 1227. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031227

10.

Basto-Pereira

Miranda

Ribeiro

Maia

Â.

(2016). Growing up with adversity: From juvenile justice involvement to criminal persistence and psychosocial problems in young adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 62, 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.10.011

11.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): Preventing Early Trauma to Improve Adult Health. Vital Signs. https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/aces/index.html

12.

Clarkson Freeman

P. A.

(2014). Prevalence and relationship between adverse childhood experiences and child behavior among young children. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35(6), 544–554. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21460

13.

Copp

J. E.

Johnson

E. I.

(2025). A life course perspective on parental incarceration and other forms of childhood adversity. Children and Youth Services, 168, 108011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2024.108011

14.

Cottle

C. C.

Lee

R. J.

Heilbrun

K. I. R. K.

(2001). The prediction of criminal recidivism in juveniles: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28(3), 367–394. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854801028003005

15.

Craig

J. M.

Malvaso

Farrington

D. P.

(2025). The association between adverse childhood experiences and different types of offending behavior: An examination across two generations of British males. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 69(5), 611–629. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X231198808

16.

Craig

J. M.

Trulson

C. R.

DeLisi

Caudill

J. W.

(2020). Toward an understanding of the impact of adverse childhood experiences on the recidivism of serious juvenile offenders. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(6), 1024–1039. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09524-6

17.

Craig

J. M.

Wolff

K. T.

Baglivio

M. T.

(2021). Resilience in context: The association between neighborhood disadvantage and cumulative positive childhood experiences among justice-involved youth. Crime and Delinquency, 67(11), 1647–1675. https://doi.org/10.1177/00111287211029852

18.

Craig

J. M.

Wolff

K. T.

Baglivio

M. T.

(2022). Clustering of adverse and positive childhood experiences: The nature and correlates of risk and protective factors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 134, 105878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105878

19.

Craig

J. M.

Zettler

H. R.

(2021). Are the effects of adverse childhood experiences on violent recidivism offense-specific? Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 19(1), 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204020939638

20.

Craig

J. M.

Zettler

H. R.

Wolff

K. T.

Baglivio

M. T.

(2019). Considering the mediating effects of drug and alcohol use, mental health, and their co-occurrence on the adverse childhood experiences–recidivism relationship. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 17(3), 219–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204018796910

21.

DeLisi

Alcala

Kusow

Hochstetler

Heirigs

Caudill

Trulson

Baglivio

(2017). Adverse childhood experiences, commitment offense, and race/ethnicity: Are the effects crime-, race-, and ethnicity-specific? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(3), 331–343. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14030331

22.

Duke

N. N.

Pettingell

S. L.

McMorris

B. J.

Borowsky

I. W.

(2010). Adolescent violence perpetration: Associations with multiple types of adverse childhood experiences. Pediatrics, 125(4), e778–e786. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0597

23.

Felitti

V. J.

Anda

R. F.

Nordenberg

Williamson

D. F.

Spitz

A. M.

Edwards

Koss

M. P.

Marks

J. S.

(1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8

24.

Florida Department of Juvenile Justice. (2021). Judicial Process. https://www.djj.state.fl.us/faqs/probation-community-intervention/judicial-process

25.

Fox

B. H.

Perez

Cass

Baglivio

M. T.

Epps

(2015). Trauma changes everything: Examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and serious, violent and chronic juvenile offenders. Child Abuse & Neglect, 46, 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.01.011

26.

Giordano

P. C.

(2020). Continuing education: Toward a life-course perspective on social learning. Criminology, 58(2), 199–225. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12244

27.

Giordano

P. C.

Copp

J. E.

(2015). ‘Packages’ of risk: Implications for determining the effect of maternal incarceration on child wellbeing. Criminology & Public Policy, 14(1), 157–168. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12118

28.

Giordano

P. C.

Copp

J. E.

Manning

W. D.

Longmore

M. A.

(2019). Linking parental incarceration and family dynamics associated with intergenerational transmission: A life-course perspective. Criminology, 57(3), 395–423. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12209

29.

Hay

Widdowson

A. O.

Bates

Baglivio

M. T.

Jackowski

Greenwald

M. A.

(2018). Predicting recidivism among released juvenile offenders in Florida: An evaluation of the residential positive achievement change tool. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 16(1), 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204016660161

30.

Kerker

B. D.

Zhang

Nadeem

Stein

R. E. K.

Hurlburt

M. S.

Heneghan

Landsverk

McCue Horwitz

(2015). Adverse childhood experiences and mental health, chronic medical conditions, and development in young children. Academic Pediatrics, 15(5), 510–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2015.05.005

31.

Kilpatrick

D. G.

Acierno

Saunders

Resnick

H. S.

Best

C. L.

Schnurr

P. P.

(2000). Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and dependence: Data from a national sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(1), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.68.1.19

32.

Kowalski

M. A.

(2019). Adverse childhood experiences and justice-involved youth: The effect of trauma and programming on different recidivistic outcomes. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 17(4), 354–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204018809836

33.

LaNoue

M. D.

George

B. J.

Helitzer

D. L.

Keith

S. W.

(2020). Contrasting cumulative risk and multiple individual risk models of the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and adult health outcomes. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 20, 239. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-020-01120-w

34.

Lattimore

P. K.

Visher

C. A.

Linster

R. L.

(1995). Predicting rearrest for violence among serious youthful offenders. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 32(1), 54–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427895032001003

35.

Lockwood

Peck

J. H.

Wolff

K. T.

Baglivio

M. T.

(2022). Understanding adverse childhood experiences and juvenile court outcomes: The moderating role of race and ethnicity. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 20(2), 83–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/15412040211063437

36.

Loughran

T. A.

Mulvey

E. P.

Schubert

C. A.

Fagan

Piquero

A. R.

Losoya

S. H.

(2009). Estimating a dose-response relationship between length of stay and future recidivism in serious juvenile offenders. Criminology, 47(3), 699–740. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2009.00165.x

37.

Mersky

J. P.

Janczewski

C. D.

Topitzes

(2017). Rethinking the measurement of adversity: Moving toward second-generation research on adverse childhood experiences. Child Maltreatment, 22(1), 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559516679513

38.

Narvey

Yang

Wolff

K. T.

Baglivio

Piquero

A. R.

(2021). The interrelationship between empathy and adverse childhood experiences and their impact on juvenile recidivism. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 19(1), 45–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204020939647

39.

Negriff

(2020). ACEs are not equal: Examining the relative impact of household dysfunction versus childhood maltreatment on mental health in adolescence. Social Science & Medicine, 245, 112696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112696

40.

Olds

Henderson

C. R.

Jr Cole

Eckenrode

Kitzman

Luckey

Pettitt

Sidora

Morris

Powers

(1998). Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on children's criminal and antisocial behavior: 15-Year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280(14), 1238–1244. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.14.1238

41.

Olds

D. L.

Eckenrode

Henderson

C. R.

Jr Kitzman

Powers

Cole

Sidora

Morris

Pettitt

L. M.

Luckey

(1997). Long-term effects of home visitation on maternal life course and child abuse and neglect: Fifteen-year follow-up of a randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(8), 637–643. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1997.03550080047038

42.

Raudenbush

S. W.

Bryk

A. S.

(2002). Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods (2nd ed.). Sage.

43.

Siennick

S. E.

Pupo

J. A.

Casey

W. M.

Cowell

D. J.

Stults

B. J.

(2024). Does measurement matter? Examining the impact of outcome measurement variation on the rates and predictors of juvenile recidivism. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 49(5), 653–677. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-024-09767-7

44.

Sutherland

E. H.

(1947). Principles of criminology (4th ed.). Lippincott.

45.

Trulson

C. R.

Marquart

J. W.

Mullings

J. L.

Caeti

T. J.

(2005). In between adolescence and adulthood: Recidivism outcomes of a cohort of state delinquents. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 3(4), 355–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204005278802

46.

van de Weijer

S. G. A.

Bijleveld

C. C. J. H.

Blokland

A. A. J.

(2014). The intergenerational transmission of violent offending. Journal of Family Violence, 29, 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-013-9565-2

47.

Widom

C. S.

(1989). The cycle of violence. Science, 244(4901), 160–166. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2704995

48.

Widom

C. S.

(2017). Long-term impact of childhood abuse and neglect on crime and violence. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 24(2), 186–202. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12194

49.

Wolff

K. T.

Baglivio

M. T.

(2017). Adverse childhood experiences, negative emotionality, and pathways to juvenile recidivism. Crime and Delinquency, 63(12), 1495–1521. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128715627469

50.

Wolff

K. T.

Baglivio

M. T.

Piquero

A. R.

(2017). The relationship between adverse childhood experiences and recidivism in a sample of juvenile offenders in community-based treatment. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 61(11), 1210–1242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624x15613992

51.

Yohros

(2023). Examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and juvenile recidivism: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma Violence & Abuse, 24(3), 1640–1655. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211073846

52.

Zettler

H. R.

Craig

J. M.

(2023). Residentially-placed youth and the adverse childhood experiences-recidivism relationship: Considering racial/ethnic and sex differences. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 48(2), 530–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-021-09667-0