Recent increases in the delinquency and incarceration of girls have prompted juvenile justice professionals to search for effective, gender-specific prevention and treatment strategies. Given the dearth of research on girls' programming, these professionals are often left to sort out discrepancies between two major bodies of literature that address the needs of delinquent girls—the “what works” literature and the “gender-responsive” literature. This article culls the best of what is available within both these bodies of literature and suggests programmatic elements deemed essential for working effectively with girls.
Achenbach, T.M., Howell, C.T., Quay, H.C., & Conners, C.K. (1991). National survey of problems and competencies among four- to sixteen-year-olds: Parents reports for normative and clinical samples . Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development , 56, 5-120.
2.
Acoca, L. (1999). Investing in girls: A 21st century strategy. Juvenile Justice, 6(1), 3-13.
3.
Acoca, L., & Dedel, K. (1998). No place to hide: Understanding and meeting the needs of girls in the California juvenile justice system. Washington, DC: National Council on Crime and Delinquency .
4.
American Association of University Women. ( 1992). How schools shortchange girls: The AAUW report. Washington, DC: Author.
5.
American Association of University Women. ( 1998). Gender gaps: Where schools fail our children. Washington, DC: Author.
6.
Andrews, D.A., & Bonta, J. (1999). The psychology of criminal conduct. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.
7.
Andrews, D.A., Bonta, J.D., & Hoge, R.D. (1990). Classification for effective rehabilitation: Rediscovering psychology. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 17, 19-52.
8.
Andrews, D.A., Zinger, I., Bonta, J.D., Gendreau, P., & Cullen, F.T. (1990). Does correctional treatment work? A psychologically informed meta-analysis. Criminology, 28, 369-404.
9.
Anhalt, K., & Morris, T.L. (1998). Developmental and adjustment issues of gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents: A review of the empirical literature. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, 215-230.
10.
Bailey, J., & McCloskey, L. (2005). Pathways to adolescent substance abuse among sexually abused girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 39-53.
11.
Barriga, A., Landau, J., Stinson, B., Liau, A., & Gibbs, J. (2000). Cognitive distortion and problem behaviors in adolescents. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 36-56.
12.
Bearman, P.S., & Moody, J. (2004). Suicide and friendships amongAmerican adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 89-95.
13.
Beger, R.R., & Hoffman, H. (1998). Role of gender of detention dispositioning of juvenile probation violators. Journal of Crime and Justice , 21, 173-188.
14.
Belknap, J. (2001). The invisible woman: Gender, crime, and justice . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
15.
Belknap, J., & Holsinger, K. (1998). An overview of delinquent girls: How theory and practice have failed and the need for innovative changes. In R. Zaplin (Ed.), Female offenders: Critical perspectives and effective intervention (pp. 31-59). Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
16.
Belknap, J., Holsinger, K., & Dunn, M. (1997). Moving toward juvenile justice and youth-serving systems that address the distinct experiences of the adolescent female: A report to the governor. Columbus, OH: Office of Criminal Justice Services.
17.
Bennett, S., Farrington, D.P., & Huesmann, L.R. (2005). Explaining gender differences in crime and violence: The importance of social cognitive skills. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10, 263-288.
18.
Bloom, B. (2000). Beyond recidivism: Perspectives on evaluation of programs for female offenders in community corrections. In M. McMahon (Ed.), Assessment to assistance: Programs for women in community corrections (pp. 107-138). Lanham, MD: American Correctional Association.
19.
Bloom, B., & Covington, S. (2001, November). Effective gender-responsive interventions in juvenile justice: Addressing the lives of delinquent girls. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Atlanta, GA.
20.
Bloom, B., Owen, B., & Covington, S. (2003). Gender-responsive strategies: Research, practice, and guiding principles for women offenders (NIC Publication No. 018017). Washington, DC: National Institute of Corrections.
21.
Bonta, J. (1995). The responsivity principle and offender rehabilitation . Forum on Corrections Research, 7(3), 34-37.
22.
Bordin, E.S. (1980). Of human bonds that bind or free. Pacific Grove, CA: Society for Psychotherapy Research .
23.
Bretherton, I. (1985). Attachment theory: Retrospect and prospect. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1/2), 3-35.
24.
Brown, L.M. (2003). Girlfighting: Betrayal and rejection among girls . New York: New York University Press.
25.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2006). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2006 National Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
26.
Cameron, H., & Telfer, J. (2004). Cognitive-behavioural group work: Its application to specific offender groups. Howard Journal of Criminal Justice , 43, 47-64.
27.
Chesney-Lind, M. (1997). The female offender: Girls, women, and crime. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
28.
Chesney-Lind, M. (2000). What to do about girls? Thinking about programs for young women. In M. McMahon (Ed.), Assessment to assistance: Programs for women in community corrections (pp. 139-170). Lanham, MD: American Correctional Association.
29.
Chesney-Lind, M. (2003, October). Gender and justice: What about girls . Presentation at the National Girls Initiative Symposium, Washington, DC.
30.
Chesney-Lind, M., & Brown, M. (1999). Girls and violence: An overview. In D. Flannery & C. Huff (Eds.), Youth violence: Prevention, intervention, and social policy (pp. 171-199). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
31.
Chesney-Lind, M., & Okamoto, S.K. (2001). Gender matters: Patterns in girls delinquency and gender responsive programming. Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 1(3), 1-28.
32.
Chesney-Lind, M., & Sheldon, R. (2004). Girls, delinquency, and juvenile justice (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
33.
Child Welfare League of America. (2003). The CWLA National Girls Initiative: Growing girls for greatness. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved April 9, 2005, from www.cwla.org/conferences/2003ngirecap.htm
34.
Covington, S. (2000). Helping women recover: Gender-specific treatment for substance abuse in community corrections. In M. McMahon (Ed.), Assessment to assistance: Programs for women in community corrections (pp. 171-233). Lanham, MD: American Correctional Association.
35.
Covington, S. (2002). Helping women recover: Creating gender-responsive treatment. In S. L. A. Straussner & S. Brown (Eds.), The handbook of addiction treatment (pp. 52-72). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
36.
Covington, S., & Bloom, B. (1999, November). Gender-responsive programming and evaluation for females in the criminal justice system: A shift from what works? to what is the work?Paper presented at the 51st Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Toronto , Canada.
37.
Covington, S., & Bloom, B. (2003). Gendered justice: Women in the criminal justice system. In B. Bloom (Ed.), Gendered justice: Addressing female offenders (pp. 3-24). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
38.
Cullen, F.T., & Gendreau, P. (2000). Assessing correctional rehabilitation: Policy, practice, and prospects. In J. Horney (Ed.), Policies, processes, and decisions of the criminal justice system; criminal justice 2000 (Vol. 3, pp. 109-175). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice/ NCJRS.
39.
Donabella Sauro, M., & Teal Pedlow, C. (2005). The role of stress and personality factors on health and high-risk behaviors in young women. Women, Girls, and Criminal Justice, 6(6), 87-88, 93.
40.
Ellis, A. (1991). The revised ABCs of rational-emotive therapy (RET) . Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive Behavior Therapy , 9, 139-172.
41.
Farrington, D. (2000). Explaining and preventing crime: The globalization of knowledge- The American Society of Criminology 1999 Presidential Address . Criminology, 38, 1-24.
42.
Farrington, D., & Painter, K. (2004). Gender differences in risk factors for offending . Research, Development and Statistics Directorate, UK. Retrieved May 11, 2005, from www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds
43.
Feinman, C. (1986). Women in the criminal justice system. New York: Praeger.
44.
Fineran, S. (2002). Adolescents at work: Gender issues and sexual harassment. Violence Against Women, 8, 953-967.
45.
Flores, A.W., Travis, L.F., & Latessa, E.J. (2004). Case classification for juvenile corrections: An assessment of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (JLS/CMI) . Final report (Grant No. 98-JB-VX-0108). Washington, DC : National Institute of Justice.
46.
Florsheim, P., Shotorbani, S., & Guest-Warnick, G. (2000). Role of the working alliance in the treatment of delinquent boys in community based programs. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(1), 94-107.
47.
Fox, J.G. (1984). Womens prison policy, prisoner activism, and the impact of the contemporary feminist movement: A case study. Prison Journal, 64(1), 15-36.
48.
Freedman, E. (1974). Their sisters keepers: An historical perspective on female correctional institutions in the United States: 1870-1900. Feminist Studies, 2, 77-95.
49.
Frieswyk, S., Allen, J., Colson, D., & Coyne, L. (1986). Therapeutic alliance: Its place as a process and outcome variable in dynamic psychotherapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 5, 483-489.
50.
Gendreau, P. (1996). The principles of effective intervention with offenders. In A. Harland (Ed.), Choosing correctional options that work: Defining the demand and evaluating the supply (pp. 117-130). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
51.
Gendreau, P., & Ross, R. (1987). Revivification of rehabilitation: Evidence from the 1980s. Justice Quarterly, 4, 349-409.
52.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
53.
Giordano, P. (1978). Girls, guys, and gangs: The changing social context of female delinquency. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology , 69, 126-132.
54.
Gottfredson, S. (1987). Prediction and classification. In D. Gottfredson & M. Tonry (Eds.), Prediction and classification: Criminal justice decision making (pp. 1-20). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
55.
Gottfredson, D.M., & Snyder, H.N. (2005). The mathematics of risk classification: Changing data into valid instruments for juvenile courts (NCJ 209158). Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
56.
Hannah-Moffat, K. (1999). Moral agent or actuarial subject: Risk and Canadian womens imprisonment. Theoretical Criminology, 3, 71-94.
57.
Hannah-Moffat, K., & Shaw, M. (2003). The meaning of "risk" in womens prisons: A critique . In B. Bloom (Ed.), Gendered justice: Addressing female offenders (pp. 69-96). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
58.
Harris, M., & Fallot, R.D. (2001). Envisioning a trauma-informed service system: A vital paradigm shift. In M. Harris & R. D. Fallot (Eds.), Using trauma theory to design service systems (pp. 3-22). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
59.
Hazler, R.J., & Mellin, E.A. (2004). The developmental origins and treatment needs of female adolescents with depression. Journal of Counseling and Development, 82, 18-24.
60.
Herrera, V., & McCloskey, L. (2003). Sexual abuse, family violence, and female delinquency: Findings from a longitudinal study. Violence and Victims, 18, 319-334.
61.
Holtfreter, K., & Morash, M. (2003). The needs of women offenders: Implications for correctional programming. Women and Criminal Justice, 14(2/3), 137-160.
62.
Horvath, A., & Luborsky, L. (1993). The role of the therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 561-573.
63.
Horvath, A.O., & Symonds, D.B. (1991). Relationship between working alliance and outcome in psychotherapy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology , 38, 139-149.
64.
Horwitz, A.V., Spatz Widom, C., McLaughlin, J., & Raskin White, H. (2001). The impact of childhood abuse and neglect on adult mental health: A prospective study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42, 184-201.
65.
Howell, J.C. (2003). Preventing and reducing juvenile delinquency: A comprehensive framework. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
66.
Hubbard, D.J., & Pratt, T.C. (2002). A meta-analysis of the predictors of delinquency among girls. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 34(3), 1-13.
67.
Ilacqua, G.E., Coulson, G.E., Lombardo, D., & Nutbrown, V. (1999). Predictive validity of the young offender level of service inventory for criminal recidivism of male and female young offenders . Psychological Reports, 84, 1214-1218.
68.
Jones, P. (1996). Risk prediction in criminal justice. In A. Harland (Ed.), Choosing correctional options that work: Defining the demand and evaluating the supply (pp. 33-68). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
69.
Kaker, S., Friedemann, M., & Peck, L. (2002). Girls in detention: The results of focus group discussion interviews and official records review. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 18, 57-73.
70.
Kataoka, S., Zima, B., Dupre, D., Moreno, K., Yang, X., & McCracken, J. (2001). Mental health problems and service use among female juvenile offenders: Their relationship to criminal history. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 549-555.
71.
Kendall, K. (1994). Therapy behind prison walls: A contradiction in terms? Prison Service Journal, 96, 2-11.
72.
Kendall, K., & Pollack, S. (2003). Cognitive behavioralism in womens prisons: A critical analysis of therapeutic assumptions and practices. In B. Bloom (Ed.), Gendered justice: Addressing female offenders (pp. 69-96). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
73.
Kennedy, S. (2000). Treatment responsivity: Reducing recidivism by enhancing treatment effectiveness. Forum on Corrections Research , 12(2), 19-23.
74.
Khoury, E.L. (1998). Are girls different? A developmental perspective on gender differences in risk factors for substance use among adolescents . In W. A. Vega & A. G. Gil (Eds.), Drug use and ethnicity in early adolescence (pp. 95-123). New York: Plenum.
75.
King, S.M., William, I.G., & McGue, M. (2004). Childhood externalizing and internalizing psychopathology in the prediction of early substance use. Addiction, 99, 1548-1559.
76.
Kochenderfer, B., & Ladd, G. (1996). Peer victimization: Cause or consequence of school maladjustment? Child Development, 67, 1305-1317.
Latessa, E., Cullen, F., & Gendreau, P. (2002). Beyond correctional quackery: Professionalism and the possibility of effective treatment. Federal Probation , 66(2), 43-49.
79.
Lester, D., & Van Voorhis, P. (2004). Cognitive therapies. In P. Van Voorhis, M. Braswell, & D. Lester (Eds.), Correctional counseling and rehabilitation (pp. 109-126). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.
80.
Lipsey, M., & Wilson, D. (1998). Effective intervention for serious juvenile offenders: A synthesis of research. In R. Loeber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp. 313-335). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
81.
Lowenkamp, C., & Latessa, E. (2004). Understanding the risk principle: How and why correctional interventions can harm low-risk offenders. In Topics in community corrections (pp. 3-7) Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections.
82.
MacDonald, J.M., & Chesney-Lind, M. (2001). Gender bias and juvenile justice revisited: A multiyear analysis. Crime and Delinquency , 47, 173-195.
83.
Mahan, S. (2003). Pregnant girls and moms in detention. Justice Policy Journal: Analyzing Criminal and Juvenile Justice Issues and Policies, 1(2), 41-58.
84.
McCabe, K., Lansing, A., Garland, A., & Hough, R. (2002). Gender differences in psychopathology, functional impairment, and familial risk factors among adjudicated delinquents. Journal of American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 860-867.
85.
McCarthy, B., Felmlee, D., & Hagan, J. (2004). Girl friends are better: Gender, friends, and crime among school and street youth. Criminology, 42, 805-835.
86.
McClellan, D.S., Farabee, D., & Crouch, B.M. (1997). Early victimization, drug use, and criminality: A comparison of male and female prisoners. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 24, 455-476.
87.
McGuire, J. (2000). Can the criminal law ever be therapeutic? Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 413-426.
88.
McMahon, M. (2000). Assisting female offenders: Art or science?-Chairpersons commentary. In M. McMahon (Ed.), Assessment to assistance: Programs for women in community corrections (pp. 279-328). Lanham, MD: American Correctional Association.
89.
Mears, D., Ploeger, M., & Warr, M. (1998). Explaining the gender gap in delinquency: Peer influence and moral evaluations of behavior. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35, 251-266.
90.
Miller, B.J. (1986). Toward a new psychology of women. Boston: Beacon.
91.
Moffitt, T., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. (2002). Sex differences in antisocial behaviour: Conduct disorder, delinquency and violence in the Dunedin longitudinal study. Psychological Medicine, 32, 1475-1476.
92.
Morgan, M., & Patton, P. (2002). Gender responsive programming in the justice system- Oregons guidelines for effective programming for girls. Federal Probation, 66(2), 57-65.
93.
Obeidallah, D.A., & Earls, F.J. (1999, July). Adolescent girls: The role of depression in the development of delinquency. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
94.
Odem, M., & Schlossman, S. (1991). Guardians of virtue: The juvenile court and female delinquency in the early 20th century Los Angeles . Crime & Delinquency, 37, 186-203.
95.
Olweus, D. (1978). Aggression in the schools: Bullies and whipping boys. Washington, DC: Hemisphere .
96.
Owens, G., & Chard, K. (2001). Cognitive distortions among women reporting childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 178-191.
97.
Peters, S. (1998). Guiding principles for promising female programming: An inventory of best practices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention .
98.
Porporino, F.J., & Fabiano, E. (2005). Is there an evidence base supportive of women-centered programming in corrections? Corrections Today, 67(6), 26-27, 101.
99.
Potter, C.C. (1999). Violence and aggression in girls. In J. M. Jenson & M. O. Howard (Eds.), Youth violence: Current research and recent practice innovations (pp. 113-138). Washington, DC: NASW Press.
100.
Prinstein, M., Boergers, L., & Vernberg, E. (2001). Overt and relational aggression in adolescents: Social-psychological adjustment of aggressors and victims. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 479-491.
101.
Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598-611.
102.
Sampson, R.J., & Laub, J.H. (1993). Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
103.
Schapman-Williams, A.M., Lock, J., & Couturier, J. (2006). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adolescents with binge eating syndromes: A case series. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39, 252-255.
104.
Schoenberg, J., Riggins, T., & Salmond, K. (2003). Feeling safe: What girls say. New York: Girl Scouts of the USA.
105.
Schwalbe, C., Fraser, M., Day, S., & Arnold, E.M. (2004). North Carolina assessment of risk (NCAR): Reliability and predictive validity with juvenile offenders. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 40(1/2), 1-22.
106.
Sherman, L. W.,Gottfredson, D. C.,MacKenzie, D. L.,Eck, J.,Reuter, P., & Bushway, S. (Eds.). ( 1997). Preventing crime: What works, what doesnt, whats promising . Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
107.
Simourd, D.J., & Andrews, D.L. (1994). Correlates of delinquency: A look at gender differences . Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Carleton University, Department of Psychology.
108.
Steffensmeier, D., & Allan, E. (1998). The nature of female offending: Patterns and explanation . In R. T. Zaplin (Ed.), Female offenders: Critical perspectives and effective interventions (pp. 5-24). Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
109.
Steffensmeier, S., Schwartz, J., & Zhong, H. (2005). An assessment of recent trends in girls violence using diverse longitudinal sources: Is the gender gap closing? Criminology, 43, 355-405.
110.
Stiles, W.B., Agnew-Davies, R., Hardy, G.E., Barkham, M., & Shapiro, D.A. (1998). Relations of the alliance with psychotherapy outcome: Findings in the second Sheffield Psychotherapy Project. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 791-802.
111.
Sue, D.W., & Sue, D. (1999). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). New York : John Wiley.
112.
Teplin, L. (2001, March). Mental health: An emerging issue. Paper presented at the American Correctional Health Services Association Multidisciplinary Training Conference, Atlanta, GA.
113.
Unger, D.G., & Wandersman, A. (1985). The importance of neighbors: The social, cognitive, and affective components of neighboring. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13, 139-169.
114.
van der Kolk, B.A. (1994). Trauma and development in children. Albany: State-wide Grand Rounds, Sponsored by the New York State Department of Mental Health, Bureau of Psychiatric Services.
115.
Van Voorhis, P. (2004). An overview of offender classification systems . In P. Van Voorhis, M. Braswell, & D. Lester (Eds.), Correctional counseling and rehabilitation (5th ed., pp. 133-162). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.
116.
Wald, R., Harvey, S.M., & Hibbard, J. (1995). A treatment model for women substance users. International Journal of the Addictions, 30, 881-888.
117.
Wilson, D.B., Allen Bouffard, L., & Mackenzie, D.L. (2005). Quantitative review of structured, group-oriented, cognitive-behavioral programs for offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 32, 172-204.
118.
Wood, A., Harrington, R., & Moore, A. (1996). Controlled trial of a brief cognitive behavioral intervention in adolescent patients with depressive disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 87, 737-746.
119.
Young, T.M., Martin, S.S., Young, M.E., & Ting, L. (2001). Internal poverty and teen pregnancy. Adolescence, 36, 289-305.
120.
Zahn, M. (2005, July). Girls study group: Preliminary findings . Paper presented at the NIJ Conference, Washington, DC.
