Some tension appears to exist in the literature between the emic, or culturally specific, and etic, or universal, approaches to counseling with culturally different clients. Prompted by the lack of clear theoretical models for multicultural counseling, as well as by the inability of specific factors to explain treatment effectiveness in general, we suggest that consideration of the common factors found in psychotherapy and healing across cultures provides a useful way to bridge the gap between culturally specific and universal approaches. We believe that the skeleton of universal healing factors requires the flesh of cultural knowledge, resulting in the formulation of multicultural counseling as universal healing processes taking place in a culturally sensitive context. We propose that this perspective (a) may serve as a framework for unifying the diverse body of multi-cultural counseling literature, (b) has some empirical support, and (c) may be useful in guiding future multicultural research, training, and practice.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Akutsu, P. D. , Lin, C. H., & Zane, N. W. S. (1990). Predictors of utilization intent of counseling among Chinese and White students: A test of the proximal-distal model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 445-452.
2.
Andersen, B. , & Anderson, W. (1985). Client perceptions of counselors using positive and negative self-involving statements. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32, 462-465.
3.
Arkoff, A. , Thaver, F., & Elkind, L. (1966). Mental health and counseling ideas of Asian and American students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 13, 219-223.
4.
Arredondo, P. (1994). Multicultural training: A response. The Counseling Psychologist, 22, 308-314.
5.
Atkinson, D. R. , Casas, A., & Abreu, J. (1992). Mexican-American acculturation, counselor ethnicity and cultural sensitivity, and perceived counselor competence. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39, 515-520.
6.
Atkinson, D. R. , Furlong, M. J., & Poston, W. C. (1986). Afro-American preferences for counselor characteristics. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33, 326-330.
7.
Atkinson, D. R. , & Lowe, S. M. (1995). The role of ethnicity, cultural knowledge, and conventional techniques in counseling and psychotherapy. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 387-414). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
8.
Atkinson, D. R. , Maruyama, M., & Matsui, S. (1978). The effects of counselor race and counseling approach on Asian Americans' perceptions of counselor credibility and utility. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 25, 76-83.
9.
Atkinson, D. R. , & Matsushita, Y. J. (1991). Japanese American acculturation, counseling style, counselor ethnicity, and perceived counselor credibility. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 473-478.
10.
Atkinson, D. R. , Poston, W. C., Furlong, M. J., & Mercado, P. (1989). Ethnic group preferences for counselor characteristics. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 68-72.
11.
Atkinson, D. R. , Thompson, C. E., & Grant, S. K. (1993). A three-dimensional model for counseling racial/ethnic minorities. The Counseling Psychologist, 21, 257-277.
12.
Atkinson, D. R. , Wampold, B. E., Lowe, S. M., Matthews, L., & Ahn, H. (1998). Asian American preferences for counselor characteristics: Application of the Bradley-Terry-Luce model to paired comparison data. The Counseling Psychologist, 26, 101-123.
13.
Atkinson, D. R. , Worthington, R. L., Dana, D. M., & Good, G. E. (1991). Etiology beliefs, preferences for counseling orientations, and counseling effectiveness. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 258-264.
14.
Attneave, C. L. (1969). Therapy in tribal settings and urban network intervention. Family Process, 8, 192-210.
15.
Barak, A. , & LaCrosse, M. B. (1975). Multidimensional perception of counselor behavior. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 22, 471-476.
16.
Bennett, S. K. , & BigFoot-Sipes, D. S. (1991). American Indian and White college student preferences for counselor characteristics. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 440-445.
17.
Berg, I. K. , & Jaya, A. (1993). Different and same: Family therapy with Asian-American families. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 19, 31-38.
18.
Berg, J. H. , & Wright-Buckley, C. (1988). Effects of racial similarity and interviewer intimacy in a peer counseling analogue. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 377-384.
19.
Beutler, L. E. , Machado, P. P. P., & Neufeldt, S. A. (1994). Therapist variables. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4th ed., pp. 229-269). New York: John Wiley.
20.
Borgen, F. H. (1992). Expanding scientific paradigms in counseling psychology. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology (2nd ed., pp. 111-139). New York: John Wiley.
21.
Brown, L. S. (1994). Subversive dialogues: Theory in feminist therapy. New York: Basic Books.
22.
Carroll, L. (1962). Alice's adventures in wonderland. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin. (Original work published 1865)
23.
Casas, J. M. (1985). The status of racial -and ethnic-minority counseling: A training perspective. In P. Pedersen (Ed.), Handbook of cross-cultural counseling and therapy (pp. 267-274). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
24.
Casas, J. M. , & Pytluk, S. D. (1995). Hispanic identity development: Implications for research and practice. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Hand-book of multicultural counseling (pp. 155-180). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
25.
Cayleff, S. E. (1986). Ethical issues in counseling gender, race, and culturally distinct groups. Journal of Counseling and Development, 64, 345-347.
26.
Cervantes, R. C. , & Castro, F. G. (1985). Stress, coping, and Mexican-American mental health: A systematic review. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 7, 1-74.
27.
Cherbosque, J. (1987a). Differences between Mexican and American clients in expectations about psychological counseling. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 15, 110-114.
28.
Cherbosque, J. (1987b). Differential effects of counselor self-disclosure statements on perception of the counselor and willingness to disclose: A cross-cultural study. Psychotherapy, 24, 434-437.
29.
Christopher, J. C. (1996). Counseling's inescapable moral visions. Journal of Counseling and Development, 75, 17-25.
30.
Claiborn, C. D. , Ward, S. R., & Strong, S. R. (1981). Effects of congruence between counselor interpretations and client beliefs. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 101-109.
31.
Coleman, H. L. K. , Wampold, B. E., & Casali, S. L. (1995). Ethnic minorities' ratings of ethnically similar and European American counselors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 55-64.
32.
Comas-Dfaz, L. (1990). Hispanic Latino communities: Psychological implications. The Journal of Training and Practice in Professional Psychology, 4, 14-35.
33.
Constantino, G. , Malgady, R. G., & Rogler, L. H. (1986). Cuento therapy: A culturally sensitive modality for Puerto Rican children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 639-645.
34.
Dauphinais, P. , Dauphinais, L., & Rowe, W. (1981). Effects of race and communication style on Indian perceptions of counselor effectiveness. Counselor Education and Supervision, 21, 72-80.
35.
Everett, F , Proctor, N., & Cartmell, B. (1983). Providing psychological services to American Indian children and families. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 14, 588-603.
36.
Exum, H. A. , & Lau, E. Y (1988). Counseling style preference of Chinese college students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 16, 84-92.
37.
Fabrega, H. Jr. (1995). Hispanic mental health research: A case for cultural psychiatry. In A. M. Padilla (Ed.), Hispanic psychology: Critical issues in theory and research (pp. 107-130). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
38.
Flaskerud, J. H. (1986). The effects of culture-compatible intervention on the utilization of mental health services by minority clients. Community Mental Health Journal, 22, 127-141.
39.
Flaskerud, J. H. (1991). Effects of an Asian client-therapist language, ethnicity and gender match on utilization and outcome of therapy. Community Mental Health Journal, 27, 31-42.
40.
Foley, J. B. , & Fuqua, D. R. (1988). The effects of status configuration and counseling style on Korean perspectives of counseling. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 19, 465-480.
41.
Frank, J. D. (1961). Persuasion and healing. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
42.
Frank, J. D. (1973). Persuasion and healing (Rev. ed.). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
43.
Frank, J. D. (1974). Therapeutic components of psychotherapy: A 25-year progress report of research. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 5, 325-342.
44.
Frank, J. D. (1982). Therapeutic components shared by all psychotherapies. In J. H. Harvey & M. M. Parks (Eds.), The master lecture series: Vol. L Psychotherapy research and behavior change (pp. 5-37). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
45.
Frank, J. D. , & Frank, J. B. (1991). Persuasion and healing: A comparative study of psychotherapy (3rd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
46.
Frank, J. D. , Gliedman, L. H., Imber, S. D., Stone, A. R., & Nash, E. H. (1959). Patients' expectancies and relearning as factors determining improvement in psychotherapy. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 115, 961-969.
47.
Fukuyama, M. A. (1990). Taking a universal approach to multicultural counseling. Counselor Education and Supervision, 30, 6-17.
48.
Garfield, S. (1992). Eclectic psychotherapy: A common factors approach. In J. C. Norcross & M. R. Goldfried (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy integration (pp. 169-201). New York: Basic Books.
49.
Garfield, S. L. (1957). Introductory clinical psychology. New York: Macmillan.
50.
Garfield, S. L. (1991). Common and specific factors in psychotherapy. Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy, 10, 5-13.
51.
Garfield, S. L. (1994). Research on client variables in psychotherapy. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4th ed., pp. 190-228). New York: John Wiley.
52.
Garrett, J. T. , & Garrett, M. W. (1994). The path of good medicine: Understanding and counseling Native American Indians. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 22, 134-144.
53.
Gelso, C. J. , & Carter, J. A. (1985). The relationship in counseling and psychotherapy: Components, consequences, and theoretical antecedents. The Counseling Psychologist, 13, 155-243.
54.
Gibson, R. C. (1986). Older Black Americans. Generations: The Journal of the Western Gerontological Society, 41, 131-136.
55.
Gim, R. H. , Atkinson, D. R., & Kim, S. J. (1991). Asian-American acculturation, counselor ethnicity and cultural sensitivity, and ratings of counselors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 57-62.
56.
Goldfried, M. R. (1980). Toward the delineation of therapeutic change principles. American Psychologist, 35, 991-999.
57.
Goldfried, M. R. , & Newman, C. (1986). Psychotherapy integration: An historical perspective. In J. C. Norcross (Ed.), Handbook of eclectic psychotherapy (pp. 25-61). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
58.
Greene, C. F. , Cunningham, J., & Yanico, B. J. (1986). Effects of counselor and subject race and counselor physical attractiveness on impressions and expectations of a female counselor. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33, 349-352.
59.
Grencavage, L. M. , & Norcross, J. C. (1990). Where are the commonalities among the therapeutic common factors? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 21, 372-378.
60.
Hackett, G. , Lent, R. W., & Greenhaus, J. H. (1991). Advances in vocational theory and research: A 20-year retrospective. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 38, 3-38.
61.
Heinrich, R. K. , Corbine, J. L., & Thomas, K. R. (1990). Counseling Native Americans. Journal of Counseling and Development, 69, 128-133.
62.
Helms, J. E. (1984). Toward a theoretical explanation of the effects of race on counseling: A Black and White model. The Counseling Psychologist, 12, 153-165.
63.
Helms, J. E. (1995). An update of Helms's White and People of Color racial identity models. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 181-198). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
64.
Higginbotham, H. N. (1977). Culture and the role of client expectancy. Topics in Culture Learning, 5, 107-124.
65.
Ho, D. Y. F. (1995). Internalized culture, culturocentrism, and transcendence. The Counseling Psychologist, 23, 4-24.
66.
Horvath, A. O. , & Greenberg, L. (1986). Development of the Working Alliance Inventory. In L. S. Greenberg & W. M. Pinsof (Eds.), The psychotherapeutic process (pp. 529-556). New York: Guilford.
67.
Horvath, A. O. , & Symonds, B. D. (1991). Relation between working alliance and outcome in psychotherapy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 139-149.
68.
Ibrahim, F. A. (1991). Contribution of cultural worldview to generic counseling and develop-ment. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 13-19.
69.
Ivey, A. E. (1986). Developmental therapy. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
70.
Ivey, A. E. (1995). Psychotherapy as liberation: Toward specific skills and strategies in multicultural counseling and therapy. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 53-72). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
71.
Ivey, A. E. , Ivey, M. B., & Simek-Morgan, L. (1993). Counseling and psychotherapy: A multi-cultural perspective (3rd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
72.
Jones, D. L. (1979). African-American clients: Clinical practice issues. Social Work, 24, 112-118.
73.
Jones, A. , & Seagull, A. A. (1977). Dimensions of the relationship between the Black client and the White therapist. American Psychologist, 32, 850-855.
74.
Kemp, A. D. (1994) African-American students' expectations about counseling: A comparative investigation. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 22, 257-264.
75.
Kluckhohn, C. , & Murray, H. A. (1950). Personality formation: The determinants. In C. Kluckhohn & H. A. Murray (Eds.), Personality in nature, society, and culture (pp. 35-48). New York: Knopf.
76.
Krassner, M. (1986). Effective features of therapy from the healer's perspective: A study of curanderismo. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 56, 157-183.
77.
Kunkel, M. A. (1990). Expectations about counseling in relation to acculturation in Mexican-American and Anglo-American student samples. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 286-292.
78.
LaFromboise, T. , & Howard-Pitney, B. (1995). The Zuni life skills development curriculum: Description and evaluation of a suicide prevention program. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 479-486.
79.
LaFromboise, T. D. , Trimble, J. E., & Mohatt, G. V. (1990). Counseling intervention and American Indian tradition: An integrative approach. The Counseling Psychologist, 18, 628-654.
80.
Lambert, M. J. , & Bergin, A. E. (1994). The effectiveness of psychotherapy. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4th ed., pp. 143-189). New York: John Wiley.
81.
Landrine, H. , & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). African American acculturation: Deconstructing race and reviving culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
82.
Leong, F. T. L. (1996). Toward an integrative model for cross-cultural counseling and psychotherapy. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 5, 189-209.
83.
LeVine, E. S. , & Franco, J. N. (1983). Effects of therapist's gender, ethnicity, and verbal style on client's willingness to seek therapy. Journal of Social Psychology, 121, 51-57.
84.
Lewis, S. Y. (1994). Cognitive-behavioral therapy. In Comas-Diaz, L., & Greene, B. (Eds.), Women of color: Integrating ethnic and gender identities in psychotherapy (pp. 223-238). New York: Guilford.
85.
Lipsey, M. W. , & Wilson, D. B. (1993). The efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment: Confirmation from meta-analysis. American Psychologist, 48, 1181-1209.
86.
Luborsky, L. , Crits-Christoph, P., Mintz, J., & Auerbach, A. (1988). Who will benefit from psychotherapy? Predicting therapeutic outcome. New York: Basic Books.
87.
Mahrer, A. R. (1989). The integration of psychotherapies: A guide for practicing therapists. New York: Human Sciences Press.
88.
Marmor, J. (1987). The psychotherapeutic process: Common denominators in diverse approaches. In J. K. Zeig (Ed.), The evolution of psychotherapy (pp. 266-282). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
89.
Marsella, A. J. (1982). Culture and mental health: An overview. In A. J. Marsella& G. M. White (Eds.), Cultural conceptions of mental health and therapy (pp. 359-388). Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel.
90.
McCarthy, P. R. (1979). Differential effects of self-disclosing versus self-involving counselor statements across counselor-client gender pairings. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 26, 538-541.
91.
McCarthy, P. R. , & Betz, N. E. (1978). Differential effects of self-disclosing versus self-involving counselor statements. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 25, 251-256.
92.
Neighbors, H. W. , Jackson, J. S., Bowman, P. J., & Gurin, G. (1983). Stress, coping, and Black mental health: Preliminary finding from a national study. Prevention in Human Services, 2, 5-29.
93.
Nishio, K. , & Bilmes, M. (1987). Psychotherapy with Southeast Asian American clients. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 18, 342-346.
94.
Norcross, J. C. , & Newman, C. F. (1992). Psychotherapy integration: Setting the context. In J. C. Norcross & M. R. Goldfried (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy integration (pp.3-45). New York: Basic Books.
95.
Orlinsky, D. E. , Grawe, K., & Parks, B. A. (1994). Process and outcome in psychotherapy—noch einmal. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4th ed., pp. 270-376). New York: John Wiley.
96.
Orlinsky, D. E. , & Howard, K. I. (1986). Process and outcome in psychotherapy. In S. L. Garfield & A. E. Bergin (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (3rd ed., pp.283-330). New York: John Wiley.
97.
Orlinsky, D. E. , & Howard, K. I. (1987). A generic model of psychotherapy. Journal of Integrative and Eclectic Psychotherapy, 6, 6-26.
98.
Padilla, A. M. , & Ruiz, R. (1973). Latino mental health: A review of the literature. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.
99.
Padilla, A. M. , & Salgado De Snyder, N. (1987). Counseling Hispanics: Strategies for effective intervention. In P. Pedersen (Ed.), Handbook of cross-cultural counseling and therapy (pp. 157-164). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
100.
Parham, T. (1992). Managing therapeutic issues with African-American clients [Film]. (Avail-able from Microtraining and Multicultural Development, P. 0. Box 9641, North Amherst, MA 01059-9641)
101.
Patterson, C. H. (1996). Multicultural counseling: From diversity to universality. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 227-231.
102.
Paul, G. L. (1967). Strategy of outcome research in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 31, 109-118.
103.
Pedersen, P. B. (1987). Ten frequent assumptions of cultural bias in counseling. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 31, 109-118.
104.
Pedersen, P. B. (1991). Multiculturalism as a generic approach to counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 6-12.
105.
Pedersen, P. B. (1995). Culture-centered ethical guidelines for counselors. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 34-49). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
106.
Pedersen, P. B. , Draguns, J. G., Lonner, W. J., & Trimble, J. E. (Eds.). (1996). Counseling across cultures (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
107.
Pomales, J. , Claiborn, C. D., & LaFromboise, T. D. (1986). Effects of Black students' racial identity on perceptions of White counselors varying in cultural sensitivity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33, 57-61.
108.
Pomales, J. , & Williams, V. (1989). Effects of level of acculturation and counseling style on His-panic students' perceptions of counselor. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 79-83.
109.
Ponce, F. Q. , & Atkinson, D. R. (1989). Mexican-American acculturation, counselor ethnicity, counseling style, and perceived counselor credibility. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 203-208.
110.
Ponterotto, J. G. , Alexander, C. M., & Hinkston, J. A. (1988). Afro-American preferences for counselor characteristics: A replication and extension. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 175-182.
111.
Prilleltensky, I. , & Gonick, L. (1996). Politics change, oppression remains: On the psychology and politics of oppression. Political Psychology, 17, 127-148.
112.
Ridley, C. R. (1984). Clinical treatment of the nondisclosing Black client: A therapeutic paradox. American Psychologist, 39, 1234-1244.
113.
Ridley, C. R. (1995). Overcoming unintentional racism in counseling and therapy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
114.
Ridley, C. R. , & Lingle, D. W. (1996). Cultural empathy in multicultural counseling: A multidimensional process model. In P. B. Pedersen, J. G. Draguns, W. J. Lonner, & J. E. Trimble (Eds.), Counseling across cultures (4th ed., pp. 21-46). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
115.
Ridley, C. R. , Mendoza, D. W., & Kanitz, B. E. (1994). Multicultural training: Reexamination, operationalization, and integration. The Counseling Psychologist, 22, 227-289.
116.
Robinson, T. L. , & Howard-Hamilton, M. F. (1994). An Afrocentric paradigm: Foundation for a healthy self-image and healthy interpersonal relationships. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 16, 327-339.
117.
Rogler, L. H. , Malgady, R. G., Constantino, G., & Blumenthal, R. (1987). What do culturally sensitive mental health services mean? The case of Hispanics. American Psychologist, 42, 565-570.
118.
Roman, L. G. (1993). White is a color! White defensiveness, postmodernism, and anti-racist pedagogy. In C. McCarthy & W. Crichlow (Eds.), Race identity and representation in education (pp. 71-88). New York: Routledge.
119.
Root, M. P. P. (1985). Guidelines for facilitating therapy with Asian American clients. Psychotherapy, 22, 349-356.
120.
Rosenzweig, S. (1936). Some implicit common factors in diverse methods in psychotherapy. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 6, 412-415.
121.
Salzman, M. (1995). Attributional discrepancies and bias in cross-cultural interactions. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 23, 181-193.
122.
Schinke, S. P. , Orlandi, M. A., Botvin, G. J., Gilchrist, L. D., Trimble, J. E., & Locklear, V. S. (1988). Preventing substance abuse among American Indian adolescents: A bicultural competence skills approach. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 87-90.
123.
Smith, E. M. J. (1985). Ethnic minorities: Life stress, social support, and mental health issues. The Counseling Psychologist, 13, 537-579.
124.
Sodowsky, G. R. (1991). Effects of culturally consistent counseling tasks on American and inter-national student observers' perception of counselor credibility: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Counseling and Development, 69, 253-256.
125.
Stiles, W. B. , Shapiro, D. A., & Elliott, R. (1986). Are all psychotherapies equivalent? American Psychologist, 41, 165-180.
126.
Sue, D. , & Sue, D. W. (1993). Ethnic identity: Cultural factors in the psychological development of Asians in America. In D. R. Atkinson, G. Morten, & D. W. Sue (Eds.), Counseling American minorities: A cross-cultural perspective (4th ed., pp. 199-210). Indianapolis, IN: Brown & Benchmark.
127.
Sue, D. , & Sundberg, N. D. (1996). Research and research hypotheses about effectiveness in intercultural counseling. In P. B. Pedersen, J. G. Draguns, W. J. Lonner, & J. E. Trimble (Eds.), Counseling across cultures (4th ed., pp. 323-352). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
128.
Sue, D. , Yau, T. Y., & Mao, J. (1997). Microskills in multicultural counseling. Manuscript in preparation.
129.
Sue, D. W. , Arredondo, P., & McDavis, R. J. (1992). Multicultural counseling competencies and standards: A call to the profession. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 477-486.
130.
Sue, D. W. , Ivey, A. E., & Pedersen, P. B. (Eds.). (1996). A theory of multicultural counseling and therapy. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
131.
Sue, D. W. , & Sue, D. (1990). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice. New York: John Wiley.
132.
Sue, S. (1988). Psychotherapeutic services for ethnic minorities: Two decades of research findings. American Psychologist, 43, 301-308.
133.
Sue, S. , Fujino, D. C., Hu, L., Takeuchi, D. T., & Zane, N. W. S. (1991). Community mental health services for ethnic minority groups: A test of the cultural responsiveness hypothesis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 533-540.
134.
Sue, S. , & Zane, N. (1987). The role of culture and cultural techniques in psychotherapy: A critique and reformulation. American Psychologist, 42, 37-45.
135.
Sue, S. , Zane, N., & Young, K. (1994). Research on psychotherapy with culturally diverse populations. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4th ed., pp. 783-817). New York: John Wiley.
136.
Sykes, D. K. (1987). An approach to working with Black youth in cross-cultural therapy. Clinical Social Work Journal, 15, 260-270.
137.
Szapocznik, J. , Rio, A., Perez-Vidal, A., Kurtines, W., Hervis, O., & Santisteban, D. (1986). Bicultural effectiveness training (BET): An experimental test of an intervention modality for families experiencing intergenerational/intercultural conflict. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 8, 303-330.
138.
Tan, H. (1967). Intercultural study of counseling expectancies. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 14, 122-130.
139.
Task Force on Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures . (1995). Training in and dissemination of empirically-validated psychological treatments: Report and recommendations. The Clinical Psychologist, 48, 3-23.
140.
Terrell, F. , & Terrell, S. (1984). Race of counselor, client sex, cultural mistrust level, and premature termination from counseling among Black clients. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31, 371-375.
141.
Thomason, T. C. (1991). Counseling Native Americans: An introduction for non-Native American counselors. Journal of Counseling and Development, 69, 321-327.
142.
Thompson, C. E. , & Jenal, S. T. (1994). Interracial and intraracial quasi-counseling interactions when counselors avoid discussing race. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 484-491.
143.
Thompson, C. E. , Worthington, R., & Atkinson, D. R. (1994). Counselor content orientation, counselor race, and Black women's cultural mistrust and self-disclosures. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 155-161.
144.
Todd, J. , & Bohart, A. C. (1994). Foundations of clinical and counseling psychology (2nd ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
145.
Torrey, E. F. (1972). The mind game: Witchdoctors and psychiatrists. New York: Emerson Hall.
146.
Torrey, E. F. (1986). Witchdoctors and psychiatrists: The common roots of psychotherapy and its future. New York: Harper & Row.
147.
Tracey, T. J. (1988). Relationship of responsibility attribution congruence to psychotherapy out-come. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 7, 131-146.
148.
Trevino, J. G. (1996). Worldview and change in cross-cultural counseling. The Counseling Psychologist, 24, 198-215.
149.
Trimble, J. E. , Fleming, C. M., Beauvais, F., & Jumper-Thurman, P. (1996). Essential cultural and social strategies for counseling Native American Indians. In P. B. Pedersen, J. G. Draguns, W. J. Lonner, & J. E. Trimble (Eds.), Counseling across cultures (4th ed., pp. 177-209). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
150.
Tyler, J. D. , Clark, J. A., & Wittenstrom, R. C. (1989). Mental health values and response to alcoholism treatment. Counseling and Values, 33, 204-216.
151.
Vontress, C. E. (1979). Cross-cultural counseling: An existential approach. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 58, 117-122.
152.
Wade, P. , & Bernstein, B. L. (1991). Culture sensitivity training and counselor's race: Effects on Black female clients' perceptions and attrition. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 9-15.
153.
Wampold, B. E. (1997). Methodological problems in identifying efficacious psychotherapies. Psychotherapy Research, 7, 21-43.
154.
Wampold, B. E. , Mondin, G. W., Moody, M., Stich, F., Benson, K., & Ahn, H. (1997). A meta-analysis of outcome studies comparing bonafide psychotherapies: Empirically, "All must have prizes."Psychological Bulletin, 122, 203-215.
155.
Waxer, P. H. (1989). Cantonese versus Canadian evaluation of directive and non-directive therapy. Canadian Journal of Counseling, 23, 263-272.
156.
Wilson, L. L. , & Stith, S. M. (1991). Culturally sensitive therapy with Black clients. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 19, 32-43.
157.
Wohl, J. (1995). Traditional individual psychotherapy and ethnic minorities. In J. F. Aponte, R. Young Rivers, & J. Wohl (Eds.), Psychological interventions and cultural diversity (pp. 74-91). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
158.
Worthington, R. L. , & Atkinson, D. R. (1996). Effects of perceived etiology attribution similarity on client ratings of counselor credibility. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 423-429.
159.
Wu, D. Y. H. (1982). Psychotherapy and emotion in traditional Chinese medicine. In A. J. Marsella & G. M. White (Eds.), Cultural conceptions of mental health and therapy (pp. 285-301). Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel.
160.
Yi, K. (1995). Psychoanalytic psychotherapy with Asian clients: Transference and therapeutic considerations. Psychotherapy, 32, 308-316.
161.
Yuen, R. K. , & Tmsley, H. E. A. (1981). International and American student expectancies about counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 66-69.
162.
Zimbardo, P. G. (1985). Psychology and life (12th ed.). Boston, MA: Scott, Foresman.
