The development of culturally competent counseling skills and knowledge is experienced differently when faculty and students are from culturally and/or racially different backgrounds. This article reviews some of the factors that influence learning and teaching in counselor preparation programs when the faculty member is African American and the students are White Americans.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Althen, G. (1988). American ways: A guide for foreigners in the United States. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
2.
Arrenondo-Dowd, P. M. , & Gonsalves, J. (1980). Preparing culturally effective counselors. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 58, 657-662.
3.
Astin, A. (1975). Preventing students from dropping out. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
4.
Atkinson, D. , Morten, G., & Sue, D. W. (1989). Counseling American minorities: A cross-cultural perspective. Dubuque, IA: W.C. Brown.
5.
Atkinson, D. R. (1983). Ethnic similarity in counseling psychology: A review of the research. The Counseling Psychologist, 11, 79-92.
6.
Atkinson, D. R. (1985). A meta-review of research on cross-cultural counseling and psychotherapy. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 13, 138-153.
7.
Balenger, V. J. , Hoffman, M. A., & Sedlacek, W. E. (1992). Racial attitudes among incoming White students: A study of 10-year trends. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 245-252.
8.
Banks, H. C. (1975). The Black person as client and as therapist. Professional Psychologist, 8, 470-475.
9.
Banks, J. A. (1986). Race, ethnicity and schooling in the United States: Past, present and future. In J. A. Banks & J. Lynch (Eds.), Multicultural education in western societies (pp. 30-50). London: Holt, Reinhart, & Winston.
10.
Barol, B. , Camper, D., Piggott, C., Nadolski, R., Sarris, M., Wares, D., & Blossom, T. (1983, March). Why they choose separate tables. Newsweek ON CAMPUS, pp. 4-13.
11.
Beale, A. V. (1986). A cross-cultural dyadic encounter. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 14, 73-76.
12.
Bernal, G. , Bernal, M. E., Martinez, A. C., Olmedo, E. L., & Santisteban, D. (1983). Hispanic mental health curriculum for psychology. In J. C. Chunn, P. J. Dunston, & F. Ross-Sheriff (Eds.), Mental health and people of color: Curriculum development and change (pp. 65-94). Washington, DC: Howard University Press.
13.
Berry, J. W. (1976). Human ecology and cognitive style. New York: Halsted.
14.
Bowman, R. , & Woolbright, C. (1989). Black Americans. In C. Woolbright (Ed.), Valuing diversity on campus: A multicultural approach (pp. 23-28). Bloomington, IN: Association of College Unions-International.
15.
Brislin, R. W. (1981). Cross-cultural encounter: Face-to-face interaction. New York: Pergamon.
16.
Bronstein, P. A. , & Quina, K. (1988). (Eds.). Teaching a psychology of people: Resources for gender & sociocultural awareness. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
17.
Burrell, L. , & Rayder, N. F. (1971). Black and White students' attitudes toward White counselors. Journal of Negro education, 40, 48-52.
18.
Camey, C. G. , & Kahn, K. B. (1984). Building competencies for effective cross-cultural counseling: A development view. The Counseling Psychologist, 12, 111-119.
19.
Carter, R. T. (1990a). Cultural values differences between African Americans and White Americans. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 71-79.
20.
Carter, R. T. (1990b). Does race or racial identity attitudes influence the counseling process in Black and White dyads? In J. E. Helms (Ed.), Black and White racial identity attitudes: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 145-164). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
21.
Carter, R. T. , White, T. J., & Sedlecek, N. E. (1987). White student attitudes toward Blacks: Implications for Black student recruitment and retention. Journal of Behavioral and Social Sciences, 33(3), 165-175.
22.
Casas, J. M. (1984). Policy, training and research in counseling psychology: The racial/ethnic minority perspective. In S. Brown & R. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology (pp. 785-831). New York: Wiley.
23.
Chambers, T. , & Lewis, J. (1992). A two dimensional approach to understanding cultural differences and discrimination: A workshop within a workshop. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 79-82.
24.
Claney, D. , & Parker, W. M. (1988). Assessing White racial consciousness and perceived comfort with Black individuals: A preliminary study. Journal of Counseling and Development, 67, 449-451.
25.
Cohen, A. I. (1974). Treating the Black patient: Transference questions. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 28, 137-143.
26.
Cohen, R. (1969). Conceptual styles, cultural conflict, and nonverbal tests of intelligence. American Anthropologist, 71, 828-856.
27.
Collier, M. J. , & Powell, R. (1990). Ethnicity, instructional communication and classroom systems. Communication Quarterly, 38(4), 334-349.
28.
Corvin, S. A. , & Wiggins, F. (1989). An antiracist training model for White professionals. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 17, 105-114.
29.
Cross, W. E. (1971). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience: Toward a psychology of Black liberation. Black World, 20(9), 13-27.
30.
D'Andrea, M. , & Daniels, J. (1991). Exploring the different levels of multicultural counseling training in counselor education. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 78-85.
31.
Dawson, J. (1973). Effects of ecology and subjective culture on individual traditional-motivation, and potential or economic development in the Japanese and Eskimo societies. International Journal of Psychology, 8, 215-225.
32.
Deyhle, D. (1983). Measuring success and failure in the classroom: Teacher communication about tests and the understanding of young Navajo students. Peabody Journal of Education, 61, 67-85.
33.
Dunn, R. (1981). A learning styles primer. Principal, 60(5), 31-34.
34.
Evans, G. (1986, April 20). Black students who attend White colleges face contradiction in their campus life. Chronicle of Higher Education, pp. 29-30.
35.
Fouad, N. A. , & Carter, R. T. (1992). Gender and racial issues for new counseling psychologists in academia. The Counseling Psychologist, 20, 123-140.
36.
Freeman, H. R. (1989). Perceptions of teacher characteristics and student judgements of teacher effectiveness. Teaching of Psychology, 15(3), 158-160.
37.
Fukuyama, M. A. , & Neimeyer, G. J. (1985). Using the cultural attitudes repertory technique (CART) in a cross-cultural counseling workshop. Journal of Counseling and Development, 63, 304-305.
38.
Garcia, M. H. , Wright, J. M., & Corey, G. (1991). A multicultural perspective inan undergraduate human services program. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 86-90.
39.
Gardner, L. H. (1971). The therapeutic relationship under varying conditions of race. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 8, 78-87.
40.
Gordan, L. (1991). Race relations and attitudes at Arizona State University. In P. G. Altbach & K. Lomotey (Eds.), The racial crisis in American higher education (pp. 233-248). Albany: State University of New York Press.
41.
Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City, NY: Anchor.
42.
Hall, E. T. (1984). The dance of life: The other dimension of time. Garden City, NY: Anchor.
43.
Hardiman, R. (1982). White identity development: A process oriented model for describing the racial consciousness of White Americans. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 104A. (University Microfilms No. 82-10330)
44.
Harper, F. (1973). What counselors must know about the social sciences of Black Americans. Journal of Negro Education, 42, 109-116.
45.
Harrison, D. K. (1975). Race as a counselor-client variable in counseling and psychotherapy: A review of the research. The Counseling Psychologist, 5, 124-133.
46.
Hecht, M. L. , Andersen, P. A., & Ribeau, S. A. (1989). The cultural dimensions of nonverbal communication. In M. K. Asante & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Handbook of international and intracultural communication (pp. 163-185). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
47.
Helms, J. E. (1984). Toward a theoretical explanation of the effects of race on counseling: A Black and White model. The Counseling Psychologist, 12, 153-165.
48.
Helms, J. E. (1989). Considering some methodological issues in racial identity counseling research. The Counseling Psychologist, 17, 227-252.
49.
Helms, J. E. , & Carter, R. T. (1991). Relationships of White and Blackracial identity attitudes and demographic similarity to counselor preferences. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 446-457.
50.
Holland, J. L. (1966). The psychology of vocational choice. Waltham, MA: Blaisdell.
51.
Holland, J. L. (1973). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
52.
Ibrahim, F. A. (1985). Effective cross-cultural counseling and psychotherapy: A framework. The Counseling Psychologist, 13, 625-638.
53.
Ivey, A. E. , Ivey, M. B., & Simek-Downing, L. (1987). Counseling and psychotherapy: Skills, theories, and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
54.
Jackson, B. (1975). Black identity development. In L. Golubschick & B. Persky (Eds.), Urban social and educational issues (pp. 158-164). Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hall.
55.
Jaynes, G. D. , & Williams, R. M. (Eds.). (1989). A common destiny: Blacks and American society. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
56.
Johnson, S. D. (1987). Knowing that versus knowing how: Toward achieving expertise through multicultural training for counseling. The Counseling Psychologist, 15, 320-331.
57.
Jones, A. , & Seagull, A. A. (1978). Dimensions of the relationship between the Black client and the White therapist. American Psychologist, 32, 850-855.
58.
Jones, E. E. (1978). Effects of race on psychotherapy process and outcome: An exploratory investigation. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 15, 226-236.
59.
Jordan, C. (1985). Translating culture: From ethnographic information to educational program. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 16, 105-123.
60.
Jordan, C. , & Tharp, R. G. (1979). Culture and education. In A. J. Marsella, R. G. Tharp, & T. Ciborowski (Eds.), Perspectives in cross-cultural psychology. New York: Academic Press.
61.
Jordan, C. , Tharp, R. G., & Vogt, L. A. (1985). Compatibility of classroom and culture: General principles, with Navajo and Hawaiian instances (Working Paper No. 18). Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools/Bishop Estate.
62.
Katz, J. H. (1985). The sociopolitical nature of counseling. The Counseling Psychologist, 13, 615-624.
63.
Katz, J. H. , & Ivey, A. (1977). White awareness: The frontier of racism awareness training. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 55(8), 485-487.
64.
Kaulback, B. (1984). Styles of learning among Native children: A review of the research. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 11, 27-37.
65.
Kim, J. (1981). The process of Asian American identity development: A study of Japanese-American women's perceptions of their struggle to achieve positive identities as Americans of Asian ancestry. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, 1551A. (University Microfilms No. 81-18010)
66.
King, L. M. , Moody, S., Thompson, O., & Bennett, M. (1983). Black psychology reconsidered: Notes toward curriculum development. In J. C. Chunn, P. J. Dunston, & Ross-Sheriff (Eds.), Mental health and people of color: Curriculum development and change (pp. 3-22). Washington, DC: Howard University Press.
67.
Lee, C. C. (1991). Cultural dynamics: Their importance in multicultuml counseling. In C. C. Lee & B. L. Richardson (Eds.), Multicultural issues in counseling: New approaches to diversity (pp. 11-17). Alexandria, VA: American Association of Counseling and Development.
68.
Lloyd, A. P. (1987). Multicultural counseling: Does it belong in a counselor education program? Counselor Education and Supervision, 26, 164-167.
69.
Loo, C. M. , & Rolison, G. (1986). Alienation of ethnic minority students at a predominantly White university. Journal of Higher Education, 57(1), 58-77.
70.
Lunneborg, C. E. , & Lunneborg, P. W. (1986). Beyond prediction: The challenge of minority achievement in higher education. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 14, 77-84.
71.
McDavis, R. J. , & Parker, M. (1977). A course on counseling ethnic minorities: A model. Counselor Education and Supervision, 17(2), 146-149.
72.
McGuire, W. (1969). The nature of attitudes and attitude change. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 3). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
73.
Minatoya, L. , & Sedlacek, W. (1984). Assessing attitudes of White university students toward Blacks in a changing context. Journal of Non-White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance, 12, 69-79.
74.
Mio, J. S. (1989). Experiential involvement as an adjunct to teaching cultural sensitivity. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 17, 38-46.
75.
Moore, W. C. (1987-1988). African American faculty in White colleges: A dream deferred. Educational Record, Fall-Winter, 117-121.
76.
More, A. J. (1985, November). Indian students and their learning styles: Research results and classroom applications. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Indian Education Association, Spokane, WA.
77.
Myers, I. B. (1980). Gifts differing. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
78.
Nieto, S. (1992). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education. New York: Longman.
79.
Nieves-Squires, S. (1991). Hispanic women making their presence on campus less tenuous. Project on Status and Education of Women report to the Ford Foundation. Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges.
80.
Parker, W. M. , Valley, M. M., & Geary, C. A. (1986). Acquiring cultural knowledge for counselors in training: A multifaceted approach. Counselor Education and Supervision, 25, 61-71.
81.
Pascarella, E. , & Terenzini, P. (1979). Student-faculty informal contacts and college persistence: A further investigation. Journal of Educational Research, 72, 214-218.
82.
Pedersen, P. (1988). A handbook for developing multicultural awareness. Alexandria, VA: American Association for Counseling and Development.
83.
Pomales, J. , Claiborn, C. D., & LaFromboise, T. D. (1986). Effects of Black students' racial identity on perceptions of White counselors varying in cultural sensitivity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33, 57-61.
84.
Ponterotto, J. G. (1988). Racial consciousness development among White counselor trainees: A stage model. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 16, 146-156.
85.
Pope-Davis, D. B. , & Ottavi, T. M. (1992). The influence of White racial identity attitudes on racism among faculty members: A preliminary examination. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 389-394.
86.
Porter, R. , & Samovar, L. (1985). Approaching intercultural communication. In L. A. Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
87.
Powell, R. G. , & Avila, D. R. (1986). Ethnicity, communication competency and classroom success: A question of assessment. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 5Q, 269-278.
88.
Prosser, M. H. (1976). The cultural communicator. In H. D. Fischer & J. C. Merrill (Eds.), International and intercultural communication (2nd ed.). New York: Hasting House.
89.
Ramirez, M. , Harold, P., & Castaneda, A. (1974). New approaches to bilingual bicultural education. Austin, TX: Dissemination and Assessment Center for Bilingual Education.
90.
Reyes, M. , & Halcon, J. J. (1988). Racism in academia: The old wolf revisited. Harvard Educational Review, 58, 306.
91.
Sabnani, H. B. , Ponterotto, J. G., & Borodovski, L. G. (1991). White racial identity development and cross-cultural counselor training: A stage model. The Counseling Psychologist, 19, 76-102.
92.
Saracho, O. , & Spodek, B. (1981). Teachers' cognitive styles: Educational implications. Educational Forum, 45, 153-159.
93.
Sattler, J. M. (1977). The effects of therapist-client racial similarity. In A. S. Gurman & A. M. Razin (Eds.), Effective psychotherapy: A handbook of research (pp. 252-290). New York: Pergamon.
94.
Scarpaci, J. L. , & Fradd, S. H. (1985). Latin-Americans at the University level: Implications for instruction. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 13, 183-189.
95.
Sedlacek, W. E. , & Brooks, G. C. (1976). Racism in American education: A modelfor change. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
96.
Sedlacek, W. E. , Brooks, G. C., Jr., & Mindus, L. A. (1973). Racial attitudes of White university students and their parents. Journal of College Student Personnel, 14, 517-520.
97.
Sonnenfeld, J. (1982). Egocentric perspectives on geographic orientation. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 72, 68-76.
98.
Spitzberg, I. J. , & Thormdike, V. V. (1992). Creating community on college campuses. Albany: State University of New York Press.
99.
Sue, D. W. (1977). Counseling the culturally different: A conceptual analysis. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 55, 422-424.
100.
Sue, D. W. (1978). Eliminating cultural oppression in counseling: Toward a general theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 25, 419-428.
101.
Sue, D. W. (1981). Counseling the culturally diferent. New York: Wiley.
102.
Sue, D. W. , Bemier, J. E., Durran, A., Feiberg, L., Pederson, R, Smith, E. J., & Vasques-Nuttall, E. (1982). Position paper: Cross-cultural counseling competencies. The Counseling Psychologist, 10, 45-52.
103.
Sue, D. W. , & Sue, D. (1990). Counseling the culturally different: Theory andpractice (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley-Interscience Publication.
104.
Sue, D. W. , & Sue, S. (1977). Barriers to effective cross-cultural counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 24, 420-429.
105.
Sue, S. , & Zane, N. (1987). The role of culture and cultural techniques in psychotherapy: A critique and reformulation. American Psychologist, 42, 37-45.
106.
Talbot, D. M. (1992). A multimethod study of the diversity emphasis in master's programs in college student affairs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park.
107.
Terenzini, P. , & Pascarella, E. (1980). Student/faculty relationships and freshman year educational outcomes: A further investigation. Journal of College Student Personnel, 21, 521-528.
108.
Terry, R. W. (1981). The negative impact on White values. In B. P. Bowser & R. G. Hunt (Eds.), Impacts of racism on White Americans (pp. 109-115). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
109.
Tharp, R. G. (1989). Psychocultural variables and constants: Effects on teaching and learning in schools. American Psychologist, 44, 349-359.
110.
Thomas, C. W. (1971). Boys no more. Mission Hills, CA: Glencoe.
111.
Tinto, V. (1987). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition. Chicago: Chicago Publishing.
112.
Vogt, L. A. , Jordan, C., & Tharp, R. G. (1987). Explaining school failure, producing school success: Two cases. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18, 276-278.
113.
Vontress, C. E. (1988). An existential approach to cross-cultural counseling. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 16, 73-83.
114.
Williams, L. P (1979). Some controversial speculations on multicultural education. In T. H. Gallaber (Ed.), Doorways to diversity: Some considerations for designing educational personnel development programs (pp. 12-24). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
115.
Witkins, H. A. (1967). A cognitive-style approach to cross-cultural research. International Journal of Psychology, 2, 233-250.
116.
Wrenn, G. (1962). The culturally encapsulated counselor. Harvard Educational Review, 32, 444-449.
