The current study examined racialized labor, or the ongoing work of navigating race and racism, in a national sample of 165 Black women. Building on prior research with Black college students, we used a deductive approach to assess how participants’ narratives reflected established domains of racialized labor and extended this work by identifying their intersectional dimensions. Five of the six previously identified domains were evident: flexing, affirming, self-monitoring, questioning, and being the change. Notably, we did not find examples of avoidance; instead, a new domain of resisting emerged. Across domains, intersectionality intensified demands and shaped strategies. Somewhat paradoxically, narratives often highlighted positive outcomes of racialized labor, such as pride, resilience, and strength, while also revealing a desire to be free from it. We discuss implications for research, practice, training, and advocacy, emphasizing the need to recognize this overlooked labor and develop culturally responsive interventions that promote Black women’s well-being.
AbramsJ. A.HillA.MaxwellM. (2019). Underneath the mask of the strong Black woman schema: Disentangling influences of strength and self-silencing on depressive symptoms among U.S. Black women. Sex Roles, 80(9–10), 517–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0956-y
2.
AjayiA. A. (2026). Empirically derived racial ideologies among Black Americans: Implications for psychological well-being, racial homophily, and sociopolitical activism. Journal of Black Psychology, 52(1), 3–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984251387222
3.
AjayiA. A.Grier-ReedT.HouseworthJ. (2022). In this together? Exploring moderating and mediating effects of shared racial fate on the predictive role of racial socialization and discrimination on Black activism. Journal of Black Psychology, 48(3–4), 327–359. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984211067619
4.
AjayiA. A.SyedM. (2016). How stigma gets under the skin: Internalized oppression and dual minority stress among black sexual minorities. In SullivanJ. M.CrossW. E. (Eds.), Meaning-making, internalized racism, and African American identity (pp. 211–228). State University of New York Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781438462981-018
AssarroudiA.Heshmati NabaviF.ArmatM. R.EbadiA.VaismoradiM. (2018). Directed qualitative content analysis: The description and elaboration of its underpinning methods and data analysis process. Journal of Research in Nursing, 23(1), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987117741667
8.
AzmitiaM.PerazaP. D. G.ThomasV.AjayiA. A.SyedM. (2023). The promises and challenges of using an intersectional framework to study identity development during adolescence and early adulthood. In CrockettL. J.CarloG.SchulenbergJ. E. (Eds.), APA handbook of adolescent and young adult development (pp. 391–405). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000298-024
9.
Beauboeuf-LafontantT. (2005). Keeping up appearances, getting fed up: The embodiment of strength among African American women. Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism, 5(2), 104–123. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/181377
10.
BerdahlJ. L.MooreC. (2006). Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy for minority women. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 426–436. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.2.426
11.
BlackA. R.Woods-GiscombéC. (2012). Applying the stress and ‘strength’ hypothesis to Black women’s breast cancer screening delays. Stress and Health, 28(5), 389–396. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2464
Bryant-DavisT.Comas-DíazL. (2016). Introduction: Womanist and mujerista psychologies. In Bryant-DavisT.Comas-DíazL. (Eds.), Womanist and mujerista psychologies: Voices of fire, acts of courage (pp. 3–25). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14937-001
14.
CaseA. D.HunterC. D. (2012). Counterspaces: A unit of analysis for understanding the role of settings in marginalized individuals’ adaptive responses to oppression. American Journal of Community Psychology, 50(1–2), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-012-9497-7
15.
CénatJ. M. (2023). Complex racial trauma: Evidence, theory, assessment, and treatment. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 18(3), 675–687. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221120428
16.
ChadwickC.DeBlaereC. (2019). The power of sisterhood: The moderating role of womanism in the discrimination-distress link among women of color in the United States. Sex Roles, 81(5–6), 326–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0991-8
17.
ColeE. R. (2020). Demarginalizing women of color in intersectionality scholarship in psychology: A Black feminist critique. Journal of Social Issues, 76(4), 1036–1044. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12413
18.
CollinsP. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed.). Routledge.
19.
Comas-DíazL.HallG. N.NevilleH. A. (2019). Racial trauma: Theory, research, and healing: Introduction to the special issue. American Psychologist, 74(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000442
20.
CrenshawK. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum (pp. 139–167).
21.
CreswellJ. W.PothC. N. (2016). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage.
22.
CupidS.BrownA.HickersonH. (2024). “Now you get to see me”: Black women healthcare professionals’ experiences in sister circles during the double pandemic. Qualitative Health Research, 34(10), 941–950. https://doi.org/10.1177/10497323241227802
23.
DeBlaereC.BertschK. N. (2013). Perceived sexist events and psychological distress of sexual minority women of color: The moderating role of womanism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(2), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312470436
24.
de LeonR. P.RosetteA. S. (2022). “Invisible” discrimination: Divergent outcomes for the nonprototypicality of Black women. Academy of Management Journal, 65(3), 784–812. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2020.1623
ErvingC. L.WilliamsT. R.FriersonW.DerisseM. (2022). Gendered racial microaggressions, psychosocial resources, and depressive symptoms among Black women attending a historically Black university. Society and Mental Health, 12(3), 230–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/21568693221115766
28.
ErvingC. L.ZajdelR.McKinnonI. I.Van DykeM. E.MurdenR. J.JohnsonD. A.MooreR. H.LewisT. T. (2023). Gendered racial microaggressions and Black women’s sleep health. Social Psychology Quarterly, 86(2), 107–129. https://doi.org/10.1177/01902725221136139
29.
FeaginJ. R. (2013). The White racial frame: Centuries of racial framing and counter-framing. Routledge.
30.
FrenchB. H.LewisJ. A.MosleyD. V.AdamesH. Y.Chavez-DueñasN. Y.ChenG. A.NevilleH. A. (2020). Toward a psychological framework of radical healing in communities of color. The Counseling Psychologist, 48(1), 14–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019843506
31.
FrenchB. H.NevilleH. A.LewisJ. A.MosleyD. V.AdamesH. Y.Chavez-DueñasN. Y. (2023). “We can create a better world for ourselves”: Radical hope in communities of color. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 70(4), 327–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000670
32.
Grier-ReedT. (2010). The African American Student Network: Creating sanctuaries and counter spaces for coping with racial microaggressions in higher education settings. Journal of Humanistic Counseling Education and Development, 49(2), 181–188. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1939.2010.tb00096.x
33.
Grier-ReedT.AjayiA. A. (2019). Incorporating humanistic values and techniques in a culturally responsive therapeutic intervention for African American college students. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 58(1), 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1002/johc.12087
34.
Grier-ReedT.AjayiA. A.WilsonR. J.CottonD. (2020). Foundational curriculum for the African American student network: Synthesis of discussion topics and themes. Journal of Adolescent and Family Health, 11(1), 4–34. https://scholar.utc.edu/jafh/vol11/iss1/4.
35.
Grier-ReedT.GagnerN.AjayiA. A. (2018). (En)countering a White racial frame at a predominantly White institution: The case of the African American student network. Journal Committed to Social Change on Race and Ethnicity, 4(2), 65–89. https://doi.org/10.15763/issn.2642-2387.2018.4.2.65-89
36.
Grier-ReedT. L.MadyunN. H.BuckleyC. G. (2008). Low Black Student Retention on a Predominantly White Campus: Two Faculty Respond with the African American Student Network. Journal of College Student Development, 49(5), 476–485. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.0.0031
37.
Grier-ReedT.MaplesA.HouseworthJ.AjayiA. (2023). Posttraumatic growth and flourishing in the face of racial trauma. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 15(1), 37–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001220
38.
Grier-ReedT.MaplesA.Williams-WengerdA.McGeeD. (2020). The emergence of racialized labor and racial battle fatigue in the African American student network (AFAM). Journal Committed to Social Change on Race and Ethnicity, 6(2), 95–135. https://doi.org/10.15763/issn.2642-2387.2020.6.2.95-135
39.
Grier-ReedT.SaidR.QuiñonesM. (2021). From antiBlackness to cultural health in higher education. Education Sciences, 11(2), 57. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11020057
40.
GuestG.NameyE.ChenM. (2020). A simple method to assess and report thematic saturation in qualitative research. PloS One, 15(5), e0232076. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232076
41.
HarringtonE. F.CrowtherJ. H.ShipherdJ. C. (2010). Trauma, binge eating, and the “strong Black woman.”Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(4), 469–479. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019174
42.
HerseyT. (2022). Rest is resistance: A manifesto. Hachette.
43.
hooksb. (1981). Ain’t I a woman: Black women and feminism. Routledge.
44.
HopeE. C.HoggardL. S.ThomasA. (2015). Emerging into adulthood in the face of racial discrimination: Physiological, psychological, and sociopolitical consequences for African American youth. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 1(4), 342–351. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000041
45.
HopeE. C.SpencerM. B. (2017). Civic engagement as an adaptive coping response to conditions of inequality: An application of phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST). In CabreraN. J.LeyendeckerB. (Eds.), Handbook on Positive Development of Minority Children and Youth (pp. 421–435). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43645-6_25
46.
IveyA. E.IveyM. B.ZalaquettC. P. (2018). Intentional interviewing and counseling: Facilitating client development in a multicultural society (9th ed.). Cengage Learning.
JonesM. K.HarrisK. J.ReynoldsA. A. (2021). In their own words: The meaning of the strong Black woman schema among Black U.S. college women. Sex Roles, 84(5–6), 347–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01170-w
LeathS.BillingsleyJ.JonesM.JohnsonK.TaliaferroJ.Gaskin-ColeG. (2023). Raising resilient Black women: A study of superwoman mothering and strength as a form of gendered racial socialization in Black mother-daughter relationships. Sex Roles, 89(11–12), 625–642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-023-01417-2
51.
LermaV.HamiltonL. T.NielsenK. (2020). Racialized equity labor, university appropriation and student resistance. Social Problems, 67(2), 286–303. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spz011
52.
LewisJ. A.MendenhallR.HarwoodS. A.Browne HunttM. (2016). “Ain’t I a woman?” Perceived gendered racial microaggressions experienced by Black women. The Counseling Psychologist, 44(5), 758–780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000016641193
53.
LewisJ. A.NevilleH. A. (2015). Construction and initial validation of the Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale for Black women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000062
54.
LewisJ. A.WilliamsM. G.PeppersE. J.GadsonC. A. (2017). Applying intersectionality to explore the relations between gendered racism and health among Black women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 475–486. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000231
55.
MacDormanM. F.ThomaM.DeclcerqE.HowellE. A. (2021). Racial and ethnic disparities in maternal mortality in the United States using enhanced vital records, 2016‒2017. American Journal of Public Health, 111(9), 1673–1681. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306375
56.
MontalmantK. E.EttingerA. K. (2024). The racial disparities in maternal mortality and impact of structural racism and implicit racial bias on pregnant Black women: A review of the literature. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 11(6), 3658–3677. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-023-01816-x
57.
MoodyA. T.LewisJ. A.OwensG. P. (2023). Gendered racism, coping, and traumatic stress among Black women: The moderating roles of the strong Black woman schema and womanist attitudes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 47(2), 197–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/03616843221143752
58.
MoradiB.GrzankaP. R. (2017). Using intersectionality responsibly: Toward critical epistemology, structural analysis, and social justice activism. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 500–513. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000203
59.
MotroD.EvansJ. B.EllisA. P. J.BensonL.III. (2022). Race and reactions to women’s expressions of anger at work: Examining the effects of the “angry Black woman” stereotype. Journal of Applied Psychology, 107(1), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000884
60.
Neal-BarnettA.StadulisR.MurrayM.PayneM. R.ThomasA.SalleyB. B. (2011). Sister circles as a culturally relevant intervention for anxious Black women. Clinical Psychology, 18(3), 266–273. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2011.01258.x
61.
NelsonT.CardemilE. V.AdeoyeC. T. (2016). Rethinking Strength: Black women’s perceptions of the “strong Black woman” role. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(4), 551–563. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316646716
62.
NevilleH. A. (2024). Justice & joy: Transforming healing praxis in counseling psychology and beyond. The Counseling Psychologist, 52(8), 1372–1396. https://doi.org/10.1177/00110000241298715
63.
NowellL. S.NorrisJ. M.WhiteD. E.MoulesN. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847
64.
OkelloW. K. (2021). Organized anxiety: Respectability politics, John Henryism, and the paradox of Black achievement. Race Ethnicity and Education, 24(4), 523–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2020.1798916
65.
OrtizS. Y.RoscignoV. J. (2009). Discrimination, women, and work: Processes and variations by race and class. The Sociological Quarterly, 50(2), 336–359. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2009.01143.x
66.
OverstreetN. M.RosenthalL.CaseK. A. (2020). Intersectionality as a radical framework for transforming our disciplines, social issues, and the world. Journal of Social Issues, 76(4), 779–795. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12414
67.
ParksA. K.HaymanL. L. (2024). Unveiling the strong Black Woman schema—evolution and impact: A systematic review. Clinical Nursing Research, 33(5), 395–404. https://doi.org/10.1177/10547738241234425
68.
RoumellE. A.James-GallawayA. D. (2021). Social movements, community education, and the fight for racial justice: Black women and social transformation. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2021(170), 21–31. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.20422
69.
SellersR. M.SmithM. A.SheltonJ. N.RowleyS. A.ChavousT. M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African-American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 18–39. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2
70.
SmithW. A.AllenW. R.DanleyL. L. (2007). “Assume the position. . . you fit the description”: Psychosocial experiences and racial battle fatigue among African American male college students. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(4), 551–578. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764207307742
71.
SolórzanoD.CejaM.YossoT. (2000). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The experiences of African-American college students. The Journal of Negro Education, 69(1–2), 60–73. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2696265
72.
StarksF. D.TerryM. M. (2024). Critical love praxis as pro-Black pedagogy: A literature synthesis of empirical research in K–12 education. Journal for Multicultural Education, 18(3), 259–274. https://doi.org/10.1108/JME-11-2022-0156
73.
SueS. (2006). Cultural competency: From philosophy to research and practice. Journal of Community Psychology, 34(2), 237–245. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20095
74.
SuzukiL. A.O’ShaughnessyT. A.RoysircarG.PonterottoJ. G.CarterR. T. (2019). Counseling psychology and the amelioration of oppression: Translating our knowledge into action. The Counseling Psychologist, 47(6), 826–872. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019888763
75.
SyedM.AjayiA. A. (2018). Promises and pitfalls in the integration of intersectionality with development science. In SantosC. E.ToomeyR. B. (Eds.), New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2018(161), 109–117. Jossey-Bass. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20250
ThomasA. J.WitherspoonK. M.SpeightS. L. (2008). Gendered racism, psychological distress, and coping styles of African American women. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(4), 307–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.307
78.
ThomasZ.BanksJ.EatonA. A.WardL. M. (2022). 25 years of psychology research on the “strong Black woman”. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 16(9), e12705. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12705
79.
WalkerA. (1983). In search of our mothers’ gardens: Womanist prose. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
80.
WardE. C.ClarkL. O.HeidrichS. (2009). African American women’s beliefs, coping behaviors, and barriers to seeking mental health services. Qualitative Health Research, 19(11), 1589–1601. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732309350686
81.
WatsonN. N.BlackA. R.HunterC. D. (2016). African American women’s perceptions of mindfulness meditation training and gendered race-related stress. Mindfulness, 7(5), 1034–1043. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0539-3
82.
WatsonN. N.HunterC. D. (2015). Anxiety and depression among African American women: The costs of strength and negative attitudes toward psychological help-seeking. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(4), 604–612. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000015
83.
WatsonN. N.HunterC. D. (2016). “I had to be strong”: Tensions in the strong Black woman schema. Journal of Black Psychology, 42(5), 424–452. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798415597093
84.
WilliamsM. G.LewisJ. A. (2021). Developing a conceptual framework of Black women’s gendered racial identity development. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 45(2), 212–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684320988602
