In contrast to the burgeoning body of work on microaggressions, microaffirmations have been under-theorized, under-researched, and under-emphasized in anti-racist efforts. To address this imbalance, we highlight the relevance of cross-racial microaffirmations (CRMs). CRMs are brief, everyday allyship-based social actions and messages, extending beyond social conventions and occupational requirements, that proximally enhance or protect people of color’s sense of mattering linked to their personal or racial identities. We expand on this definition, outline the conceptual boundaries of CRMs, and identify concepts from positive psychology (mattering), as well as multiculturalism and social justice (allyship), that delineate CRMs’ conceptual foundations. We then elucidate a typology of CRMs comprising microrecognitions, microtransformations, and microprotections. Practical implications involve incorporating CRMs into anti-racist efforts across diverse fields, including education, psychotherapy, healthcare, and organizational settings. Future research could develop a CRM scale, assess the effectiveness of CRMs in anti-racist training, and evaluate applications of CRMs in diverse settings.
BaronJ.RitovI. (2004). Omission bias, individual differences, and normality. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 94(2), 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2004.03.003
3.
BezrukovaK.SpellC. S.PerryJ. L.JehnK. A. (2016). A meta-analytical integration of over 40 years of research on diversity training evaluation. Psychological Bulletin, 142(11), 1227–1274. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000067
4.
Boyce-RosenN.Mecadon-MannM. (2023). Microaffirmations: Small gestures toward equity and advocacy. Professional School Counseling, 27(1a), 2156759X231160722. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X231160722
5.
BrickD. J.WightK. G.BettmanJ. R.ChartrandT. L.FitzsimonsG. J. (2023). Celebrate good times: How celebrations increase perceived social support. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 42(2), 115–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/07439156221145696
6.
CareyR. L. (2019). Imagining the comprehensive mattering of Black boys and young men in society and schools: Toward a new approach. Harvard Educational Review, 89(3), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-89.3.370
7.
ChengH.-L.WongY. J.LiP. F. J.McDermottR. C. (2022). COVID-19 racism, anxiety, and racial/ethnic attitudes among Asian American college students. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 35(4), 897–920. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070.2021.1988514
8.
CohenG. L.SteeleC. M.RossL. D. (1999). The mentor’s dilemma: Providing critical feedback across the racial divide. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(10), 1302–1318. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299258011
9.
CokleyK. O.BernardD. L.Stone-SabaliS.AwadG. H. (2024). Impostor phenomenon in racially/ethnically minoritized groups: Current knowledge and future directions, Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 20, 407–430. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081122-015724
10.
Collier-SpruelL. A.RyanA. M. (2024). Are all allyship attempts helpful? An investigation of effective and ineffective allyship. Journal of Business and Psychology, 39(1), 83–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-022-09861-9
DavisD. E.DeBlaereC.OwenJ.HookJ. N.RiveraD. P.ChoeE.Van TongerenD. R.WorthingtonE. L.Jr.PlaceresV. (2018). The multicultural orientation framework: A narrative review. Psychotherapy, 55(1), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000160
13.
DeasN.KowalskiR.FinnellS.RadovicE.CarrollH.RobbinsC.CookA.HurleyK.CoteN.EvansK.LorenzoI.KiserK.MochizukiG.MockM.BrewerL. (2023). I just want to matter: Examining the role of anti-mattering in online suicide support communities using natural language processing. Computers in Human Behavior, 139, Article 107499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107499
14.
DelgadoR.StefancicJ. (2023). Critical race theory: An introduction (4th ed.). NYU Press.
15.
DemanarigD. L.CokleyK.BeasleyS. T.HitaL.HashemH.MamidannaP.MujicaC.MercadoA. (2024). Mending fragile alliances to fight racism: A developing framework for cross-racial/ethnic solidarity. American Psychologist, 79(4), 553–568. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001307
16.
DemetriouC.McNultyC.PowellC.DeVitaJ. (2024). “Confidence to continue”: A qualitative investigation of college students’ experiences of microaffirmations. Journal of Postsecondary Student Success, 3(2), 99–124. https://doi.org/10.33009/fsop_jpss132942
17.
De SouzaL.SchmaderT. (2024). When people do allyship: A typology of allyship action. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 29(1), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/10888683241232732
18.
DiAngeloR. (2022). White fragility: Why understanding racism can be so hard for White people (Adapted for young adults). Beacon Press.
19.
EkpeL.ToutantS. (2022). Moving beyond performative allyship: A conceptual framework for anti-racist co-conspirators. In JohnsonK. F.Sparkman-KeyN. M.MecaA.TarverS. Z. (Eds.), Developing anti-racist practices in the helping professions: Inclusive theory, pedagogy, and application (pp. 67–91). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95451-2_5
20.
EllisJ. M.PowellC. S.DemetriouC. P.Huerta-BapatC.PanterA. T. (2019). Examining first-generation college student lived experiences with microaggressions and microaffirmations at a predominately White public research university. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25(2), 266–279. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000198
21.
FlettG. (2018). The psychology of mattering: Understanding the human need to be significant. Academic Press.
22.
FlettG. L. (2021). An introduction, review, and conceptual analysis of mattering as an essential construct and an essential way of life. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 40(1), 3–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829211057640
23.
FrybergS. A.EasonA. E. (2017). Making the invisible visible: Acts of commission and omission. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 554–559. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417720959
24.
GreenwaldA. G.PettigrewT. F. (2014). With malice toward none and charity for some: Ingroup favoritism enables discrimination. American Psychologist, 69(7), 669–684. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036056
25.
HaenyA. M.HolmesS. C.WilliamsM. T. (2021). The need for shared nomenclature on racism and related terminology in psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(5), 886–892. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211000760
26.
HillC. E. (2020). Helping skills: Facilitating, exploration, insight, and action (5th ed.). American Psychological Association.
27.
HingerC. L.DeBlaereC.GwiraR.AielloM.PunjwaniA.CobourneL.TranN.LordM.MikeJ.GreenC. (2023). Defining racial allies: A qualitative investigation of White allyship from the perspective of people of color. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 70(6), 631–644. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000709
28.
HookJ. N.DavisD.OwenJ.DeBlaereC. (2017). Cultural humility: Engaging diverse identities in therapy. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000037-000
29.
JamesM. C.Díaz BeltránA. C.WilliamsJ. A.IIIYoungJ.NeshybaM. V.OgletreeQ. (2022). We matter too: Employing counterstorytelling to expose the equity paradoxes arresting mattering and racial healing among faculty of color. International Review of Qualitative Research, 14(4), 669–692. https://doi.org/10.1177/19408447211049524
30.
JohnsonI. R.PietriE. S. (2022). An ally you say? Endorsing White women as allies to encourage perceptions of allyship and organizational identity-safety among Black women. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 25(2), 453–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220975482
31.
JonesJ. M.Rolón-DowR. (2018). Multidimensional models of microaggressions and microaffirmations. In NadalS. J.RiveraK. E.CorpusJ. M.LinH. J.PaladinoR. T. (Eds.), Microaggression theory: Influence and implications (pp. 32–47). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119466642.ch3
KochJ. M.KnutsonD.LeeH.-S.RobitschekC.WangK.BurdineK.ShinJ. (2025). Microaffirmations as positive social actions: Boosting protective factors and support for marginalized populations. Journal of Prevention and Health Promotion, 26320770241309101. https://doi.org/10.1177/26320770241309101
34.
KochJ. M.KnutsonD.LocheL.LocheR. W.IIILeeH.-S.FedericiD. J. (2022). A qualitative inquiry of microaffirmation experiences among culturally diverse graduate students. Current Psychology, 41(5), 2883–2895. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00811-3
35.
KutlacaM.RadkeH. R. M. (2023). Towards an understanding of performative allyship: Definition, antecedents and consequences. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 17(2), e12724. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12724
36.
LewisJ. A.NevilleH. A. (2015). Construction and initial validation of the Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale for Black women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000062
37.
LiuT.WongY. J.MaffiniC. S.Goodrich MittsN.IwamotoD. K. (2018). Gendered racism scales for Asian American men: Scale development and psychometric properties. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65(5), 556–570. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000298
38.
LouisW. R.ThomasE.ChapmanC. M.AchiaT.WibisonoS.MirnajafiZ.DroogendykL. (2019). Emerging research on intergroup prosociality: Group members’ charitable giving, positive contact, allyship, and solidarity with others. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13(3), e12436. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12436
39.
MillerM. J.KeumB. T.ThaiC. J.LuY.TruongN. N.HuhG. A.LiX.YeungJ. G.AhnL. H. (2018). Practice recommendations for addressing racism: A content analysis of the counseling psychology literature. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65(6), 669–680. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000306
Pérez HuberL.GonzalezT.RoblesG.SolórzanoD. G. (2021). Racial microaffirmations as a response to racial microaggressions: Exploring risk and protective factors. New Ideas in Psychology, 63, 100880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2021.100880
42.
Pérez HuberL.RoblesG.SolórzanoD. G. (2023). “Life was brought back into my body”: A critical race feminista analysis of racial microaffirmations. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 26(6), 701–718. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2023.2165514
43.
PettigrewT. F.TroppL. R.WagnerU.ChristO. (2011). Recent advances in intergroup contact theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(3), 271–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.03.001
44.
PhillipsL. T.JunS. (2022). Why benefiting from discrimination is less recognized as discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 122(5), 825–852. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000298
45.
PieterseA. L.LewisJ. A.MillerM. J. (2023). Dismantling and eradicating anti-Blackness and systemic racism. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 70(3), 235–243. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000660
46.
PowellC.DemetriouC.FisherA. (2013). Micro-affirmations in academic advising: Small acts, big impact. The Mentor: Innovative Scholarship on Academic Advising, 15. https://doi.org/10.26209/mj1561286
47.
PrilleltenskyI. (2020). Mattering at the intersection of psychology, philosophy, and politics. American Journal of Community Psychology, 65(1–2), 16–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12368
48.
PrilleltenskyI.ScarpaM. P.NessO.Di MartinoS. (2023). Mattering, wellness, and fairness: Psychosocial goods for the common good. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 93(3), 198–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000668
49.
RadkeH. R. M.KutlacaM.SiemB.WrightS. C.BeckerJ. C. (2020). Beyond allyship: Motivations for advantaged group members to engage in action for disadvantaged groups. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 24(4), 291–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868320918698
50.
Rolón-DowR.DavisonA. (2021). Theorizing racial microaffirmations: A critical race/LatCrit approach. Race Ethnicity and Education, 24(2), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2020.1798381
SchmaderT.DennehyT. C.BaronA. S. (2022). Why antibias interventions (need not) fail. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(5), 1381–1403. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211057565
53.
SchwingA. E.WongY. J.FannM. D. (2013). Development and validation of the African American Men’s Gendered Racism Stress Inventory. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(1), 16–24. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028272
54.
ShapiroD. N. (2023). The power of microaffirmations. In DavidsonJ. E.RichardsonM. (Eds.), Workplace wellness: From resiliency to suicide prevention and grief management: A practical guide to supporting healthcare professionals (pp. 199–207). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16983-0_14
SpaniermanL. B.SmithL. (2017). Roles and responsibilities of White allies: Implications for research, teaching, and practice. The Counseling Psychologist, 45(5), 606–617. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000017717712
SteeleT. (2018). Toxicity in the work environment: Retaining staff members of color at a predominantly White institution. College Student Affairs Journal, 36(1), 109–123. https://doi.org/10.1353/csj.2018.0007
59.
SterzingP. R.GartnerR. E. (2020). LGBTQ microaggressions and microaffirmations in families: Scale development and validation study. Journal of Homosexuality, 67(5), 600–619. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2018.1553350
60.
Stone-SabaliS.MalloryA. B.MillsK. J.Alexandere. (2023). On racial allyship and constructing a racial allyship framework: Black graduate STEM students’ insights and recommendations for aspiring faculty allies. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 18(3), 327–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000510
61.
SueD. W. (2003). Overcoming our racism: The journey to liberation. John Wiley & Sons.
62.
SueD. W. (2017). Microaggressions and “evidence”: Empirical or experiential reality?Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(1), 170–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616664437
63.
SueD. W.AlsaidiS.AwadM. N.GlaeserE.CalleC. Z.MendezN. (2019). Disarming racial microaggressions: Microintervention strategies for targets, White allies, and bystanders. American Psychologist, 74(1), 128–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000296
64.
SueD. W.CapodilupoC. M.TorinoG. C.BucceriJ. M.HolderA. M. B.NadalK. L.EsquilinM. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
65.
SumerauJ. E.ForbesT. D.DeniseE. J.MathersL. A. B. (2021). Constructing allyship and the persistence of inequality. Social Problems, 68(2), 358–373. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spaa003
66.
TenenbaumH. R.RuckM. D. (2007). Are teachers’ expectations different for racial minority than for European American students? A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 253–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.253
67.
TeyberE.TeyberF. (2016). Interpersonal process in therapy: An integrative model. Cengage Learning.
68.
VerkuytenM. (2021). Group identity and ingroup bias: The social identity approach. Human Development, 65(5-6), 311–324. https://doi.org/10.1159/000519089
69.
WarrenE.ValentinoL. (2023). Inaction, silence, focus, and power: Identifying and assessing folk theories of the racism of omission. Social Problems, 72(2), 408–424. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spad054
70.
WarrenM. A.SekhonT.WaldropR. J. (2022). Highlighting strengths in response to discrimination: Developing and testing an allyship positive psychology intervention. International Journal of Wellbeing, 12(1), 21–41. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v12i1.1751
71.
WilcoxM. M.Pérez-RojasA. E.MarksL. R.ReynoldsA. L.SuhH. N.FloresL. Y.McCubbinL. D.Wilkins-YelK. G.MillerM. J. (2024). Structural competencies: Re-grounding counseling psychology in antiracist and decolonial praxis. The Counseling Psychologist, 52(4), 650–691. https://doi.org/10.1177/00110000241231029
72.
Wilkins-YelK. G.DelaneyT.Gamio CuervoÁ.ZounlomeN. O. O.SparksP. D. (2024). Examining how graduate advisors mitigate or exacerbate the structural barriers Women of Color navigate in STEM doctoral programs. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 17(5), 719–733. https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000452
73.
Wilkins-YelK. G.HymanJ.ZounlomeN. O. O. (2019). Linking intersectional invisibility and hypervisibility to experiences of microaggressions among graduate women of color in STEM. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 113, 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.10.018
74.
WilliamsM. T.FaberS.NeptonA.ChingT. H. W. (2023). Racial justice allyship requires civil courage: A behavioral prescription for moral growth and change. American Psychologist, 78(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000940
75.
WongY. J. (2015). The psychology of encouragement: Theory, research, and applications. The Counseling Psychologist, 43(2), 178–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000014545091
76.
WongY. J.ChoN.PandeliosA. L. (2024). Feeling good versus doing good: Reclaiming a moral vision for the psychology of gratitude. International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, 9(3), 1273–1291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41042-024-00157-2
77.
WongY. J.KangJ.NgW.TaoK. (2024). Multicultural and social justice perspectives on virtues in psychotherapy. [Manuscript submitted for publication.].
78.
WongY. J.McCulloughK. M. (2021). The intersectional prototypicality model: Understanding the discriminatory experiences of Asian American women and men. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 12(2), 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000208
79.
WongY. J.ZounlomeN. O. O.Goodrich MittsN.MurphyE. (2020). You can do it! An experimental evaluation of an encouragement intervention for female students. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 15(4), 427–437. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2019.1651887
80.
YeagerD. S.Purdie-VaughnsV.GarciaJ.ApfelN.BrzustoskiP.MasterA.HessertW. T.WilliamsM. E.CohenG. L. (2014). Breaking the cycle of mistrust: Wise interventions to provide critical feedback across the racial divide. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(2), 804–824. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033906
81.
YeungS. K.YayT.FeldmanG. (2022). Action and inaction in moral judgments and decisions: Meta-analysis of omission bias omission-commission asymmetries. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 48(10), 1499–1515. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211042315
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
