This article provides an integrated critical review of the literature on internalized heterosexism/internalized homophobia (IH), its measurement, and its psychosocial correlates. It describes the psychometric properties of six published measures used to operationalize the construct of IH. It also critically reviews empirical studies on correlates of IH in the areas of sexual identity formation and the coming-out process; mental, psychosocial, and physical health; substance use; sexual risk-taking behavior; intimate relationships; parenting and family issues; gender roles and feminism; race and ethnicity; religion; career issues; and counselor—client interactions and treatment interventions. Last, it discusses limitations of the body of research and provides suggestions for future research throughout the review.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alexander, R.A. (1986). The relationship between internalized homophobia and depression and low self-esteem in gay men (Doctoral dissertation, University of California at Santa Barbara, 1986). Dissertation Abstracts International, 47, 3977.
2.
Alford-Keating, P. (1991). The degree of openness about a gay/lesbian orientation as related to fear of negative evaluation, self-acceptance, and internalized homophobia (Doctoral dissertation, Oklahoma State University, 1991). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52(11), 6067.
3.
Allen, D.J. (2001). The role of personality and defense mechanisms in the adjustment to a homosexual identity. Journal of Homosexuality , 42(2), 45-62.
4.
Allen, D.J., & Oleson, T. (1999). Shame and internalized homophobia in gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 37(3), 33-43.
5.
Allport, G.W., & Ross, M.W. (1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 432-443.
6.
Amadio, D.M., & Chung, Y.B. (2004). Internalized homophobia and substance use among lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 17, 83-101.
7.
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author .
8.
Balsam, K.F., & Szymanski, D.M. (2005). Relationship quality and domestic violence in women's same-sex relationships: The role of minority stress. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 258-269.
9.
Barbara, A.M. (2002). Substance abuse treatment with lesbian, gay and bisexual people: A qualitative study of service providers. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 14(4), 1-17.
10.
Beckstead, A.L., & Morrow, S.L. (2004). Mormon clients' experiences of conversion therapy: The need for a new treatment approach. The Counseling Psychologist , 32, 651-690.
11.
Bennett, J., & O'Connor, R. (2002). Self-harm among lesbians. Health Psychology Update, 11(4), 32-38.
12.
Biss, W.J., & Horne, S.G. (2005). Sexual satisfaction as more than a gendered concept: The roles of psychological well-being and sexual orientation. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 18, 25-38.
13.
Blumstein, P., & Schwartz, P. (1983). American couples: Money, work, and sex. New York: Morrow.
14.
Boatwright, K.J., Gilbert, M.S., Forrest, L., & Ketzenberger, K. (1996). Impact of identity development upon career trajectory: Listening to the voices of lesbian women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 210-228.
15.
Bos, H.M., van Balen, H.F., van den Boom, D.C., & Sandfort, G.M. (2004). Minority stress, experiences of parenthood and child adjustment in lesbian families. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 22(4), 1-14.
16.
Brooks, V.R. (1981). Minority stress and lesbian women. Lexington, MA: D. C. Health.
17.
Brown, L.S. (1988). Feminist therapy with lesbians and gay men. In M. A. Dutton-Douglas & L. E. A. Walker (Eds.), Feminist psychotherapies: Integration of therapeutic and feminist systems (pp. 206-227). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
18.
Brown, L.S. (1994). Subversive dialogues. New York : Basic Books.
19.
Brown, L.S. (1995). Therapy with same-sex couples: An introduction . In N. S. Jacobson & A. S. Gurman (Eds.), Clinical handbook of couple therapy (pp. 274-291). New York: Guilford.
20.
Burns, B.L. (1995). Internalized homophobia, self-esteem and the mothering choice in lesbians (Doctoral dissertation, Georgia State University, 1995) . Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(12), 7078.
21.
Burris, L. (1996). Internalized homophobia, self-esteem, and chemical dependency among lesbians (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 1996). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58(05), 2666.
22.
Cabaj, R.P. (1996). Substance abuse in gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals . In R. P. Cabaj & T. S. Stein (Eds.), Textbook of homosexuality and mental health (pp. 783-799). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
23.
Cass, V.C. (1979). Homosexual identity formation: A theoretical model . Journal of Homosexuality, 4, 219-235.
24.
Cass, V.C. (1984). Homosexual identity formation: Testing a theoretical model. Journal of Sex Research, 20, 143-167.
25.
Cherry, R. (1996). The relationship between internalized homophobia and substance use in gay and bisexual men (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 1996). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58(05), 2659.
26.
Chung, Y.B., & Katayama, M. (1998). Ethnic and sexual identity development of Asian-American lesbian and gay adolescents. Professional School Counseling , 1(3), 21-25.
27.
Chung, Y.B., & Szymanski, D.M. (2006). Racial and sexual identities of AsianAmerican gay men. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling , 1(2), 67-93.
28.
Cianciotto, J. (2005). Hispanic and Latino same-sex couple households in the United States: A report from the 2000 census. New York: National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute and the National Latino/a Coalition for Justice.
29.
Cimini, K.T. (1992). Psychological variables predicting internalized homophobia in gay men and lesbians (Doctoral dissertation, University of Akron, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts International, 53(08), 4420.
30.
Cochran, S.D., & Mays, V.M. (2000). Relation between psychiatric syndromes and behaviorally defined sexual orientation in a sample of the U.S. population. American Journal of Epidemiology, 151, 517-523.
31.
Cody, P.J., & Welch, P.L. (1997). Rural gay men in northern New England: Life experiences and coping styles. Journal of Homosexuality, 33(1), 51-67.
32.
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
33.
D'Augelli, A.R., Grossman, A.H., Hershberger, S.L., & O'Connell, T.S. (2001). Aspects of mental health among older lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Aging & Mental Health, 5(2), 149-158.
34.
D'Augelli, A.R., Grossman, A.H., & Starks, M.T. (2005). Parents' awareness of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths' sexual orientation. Journal of Marriage and Family , 67, 474-482.
35.
Davidson, M.G. (2000). Religion and spirituality. In R. M. Perez, K. A. DeBord, & K. J. Bieschke (Eds.), Handbook of counseling and psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients (pp. 409-433). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
36.
Dew, B.J., & Chaney, M.P. (2005). The relationship among sexual compulsivity, internalized homophobia, and HIV at-risk sexual behavior in gay and bisexual male users of Internet chat rooms. Sexual Addictions & Compulsivity , 12, 259-273.
37.
DiPlacido, J. (1998). Minority stress among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals: A consequence of homophobia, heterosexism, and stigmatization. In G. M. Herek (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (pp. 138-159). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
38.
Dube, E.M., & Savin-Williams, R.C. (1999). Sexual identity development among ethnic sexual minority male youths. Developmental Psychology , 35, 1389-1398.
39.
Dudley, M.G., Rostosky, S.S., Korfliage, B.A., & Zimmerman, R.S. (2004). Correlates of high-risk sexual behavior among young men who have sex with men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 16, 328-340.
40.
Dupras, A. (1994). Internalized homophobia and psychosexual adjustment among gay men. Psychological Reports, 75, 23-28.
41.
Edwards, L.T. (1996). Internalized homophobia in gay men: An investigation of clinical sensitivity among psychotherapists (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, Alameda, 1996). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57(06), 4026.
42.
Enns, C.Z. (2004). Feminist theories and feminist psychotherapies: Origins, themes, and diversity (2nd ed.). New York: Haworth.
43.
Ervin, A.M. (2004). Male gender role conflict and internalized homonegativity: The impact on gay men's psychological well-being (Doctoral dissertation, University of Memphis, 2004). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65(07), 3704.
44.
Farnsworth, T.O. (2002). The relationship of internalized homophobia, religiosity and self-destructive behaviors in self-identified gay men (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 2002). Dissertation Abstracts International, 63(11), 5512.
45.
Fassinger, R.E., & Miller, B.A. (1996). Validation of an inclusion model of sexual minority identity formation on a sample of gay men. Journal of Homosexuality , 32, 53-78.
46.
Fingerhut, A.W., Peplau, L.A., & Ghavami, N. (2005). A dual-identity framework for understanding lesbian experience. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 129-139.
47.
Frederick, R.J. (1995). Internalized homophobia, gender roles, self-esteem and fear of intimacy in gay men (Doctoral dissertation, Fairleigh Dickinson University, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(09), 5169.
48.
Frock, S.D. (1999). The relationship between internalized homophobia and psychological distress in lesbians (Doctoral dissertation, Texas Woman's University, 1999). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(01), 0529.
49.
From, A.E. (2000). Do ethnic identity and internalized homophobia affect the coming out process for African American men and women? (Doctoral dissertation, Spalding University, 2000). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(07), 3841.
50.
Gaines, S.O., Jr., Henderson, M.C., Kim, M., Gilstrap, S., Yi, J., Rusbult, C.E., et al. (2005). Cultural value orientations, internalized homophobia, and accommodation in romantic relationships . Journal of Homosexuality, 50, 97-117.
51.
Goldberg, D.A. (1988). A study of the influence of self esteem, internalized homophobia, safer sex knowledge and anxiety on sexual satisfaction in single gay males practicing safer sex (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 1988). Dissertation Abstracts International , 50(04), 1645.
52.
Haas, S.M., & Stafford, L. (1998). An initial examination of maintenance behaviors in gay and lesbian relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15, 846-855.
53.
Harris, J.I., Cook, S.W., & Kashubeck-West, S. (in press). Religious attitudes, internalized homophobia, and identity in gay and lesbian adults. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Psychotherapy.
54.
Helms, J.E., Jernigan, M., & Mascher, J. (2005). The meaning of race in psychology and how to change it: A methodological perspective. American Psychologist, 60, 27-36.
55.
Henderson, M.C. (2001). Impact of romanticism, commitment, and internalized homophobia on accommodation processes among same-sex couples (Doctoral dissertation, Claremont Graduate University, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62(04), 2112.
56.
Herek, G.M., Cogan, J.C., & Gillis, J.R. (2000, August). Psychological well-being and commitment to lesbian, gay, and bisexual identities. Paper presented at the 108th annual meeting of the American Psychological Association , Washington, DC.
57.
Herek, G.M., Cogan, J.C., Gillis, J.R., & Glunt, E.K. (1998). Correlates of internalized homophobia in a community sample of lesbians and gay men. Journal of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, 2, 17-25.
58.
Herek, G.M., & Glunt, E.K. (1995). Identity and community among gay and bisexual men in the AIDS era: Preliminary findings from the Sacramento men's health study. In G. M. Herek & B. Greene (Eds.), AIDS, identity, and community: The HIV epidemic and lesbians and gay men (pp. 55-77). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
59.
House, C.J. (2004a). Integrating barriers to Caucasian lesbians' career development and Super's life-span, life-space approach. Career Development Quarterly, 52, 246-255.
60.
House, C.J. (2004b). Out and about: Predictors of lesbians' outness in the workplace (Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 2004) . Dissertation Abstracts International, 65(07), 3757.
61.
Hughes, T.L., Haas, A.P., Razzano, L., Cassidy, R., & Matthews, A. (2000). Comparing lesbians' and heterosexual women's mental health: A multi-site survey. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 11(1), 57-76.
62.
Joseph, K.M., Adib, S.M., Joseph, J.G., & Tal, M. (1991). Gay identity and risky sexual behavior related to the AIDS threat. Journal of Community Health, 16, 287-297.
63.
Kahn, M.J. (1991). Factors affecting the coming out process for lesbians . Journal of Homosexuality, 21(3), 47-70.
64.
Kalichman, S.C., Tannenbaum, L., & Nachimson, D. (1998). Personality and cognitive factors influencing substance use and sexual risk for HIV infection among gay and bisexual men . Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 12, 262-271.
65.
Kimmel, S.B. (2004). Understanding socio-cultural contributions to body dissatisfaction in gay men (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, 2004) . Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(09), 4678.
66.
Kimmel, S.B., & Mahlalik, J.R. (2005). Body image concerns of gay men: The roles of minority stress and conformity to masculine norms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 1185-1190.
67.
Kowszun, G., & Malley, M. (1996). Alcohol and substance misuse. In D. Davies & C. Neal (Eds.), Pink therapy: A guide for counselors and therapists working with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients (pp. 170-187). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
68.
Kurdek, L.A. (2005). What do we know about gay and lesbian couples ? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 251-254.
69.
Kus, R. (1988). Alcoholism and non-acceptance of gay self: The critical link. Journal of Homosexuality, 15, 25-41.
70.
Lease, S.H., Cogdal, P.A., & Smith, D. (1995). Counseling expectancies related to counselor's sexual orientation and clients' internalized homophobia. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy, 2(3), 51-65.
71.
Lease, S.H., Horne, S.G., & Noffsinger-Frazier, N. (2005). Affirming faith experiences and psychological health for Caucasian lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals . Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 378-388.
72.
Lewis, R.J., Derlega, V.J., Griffin, J.L., & Krowinski, A.C. (2003). Stressors for gay men and lesbians: Life stress, gay-related stress, stigma consciousness, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22(6), 716-729.
73.
Lima, G., Lo Presto, C., Sherman, M., & Sobelman, S. (1993). The relationship between homophobia and self-esteem in gay males with AIDS. Journal of Homosexuality, 25, 69-76.
74.
Linde, M.D. (2002). Internalized homophobia, self-esteem, and health problems: A correlational study of HIV-negative gay males (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 2002). Dissertation Abstracts International, 63(11), 5525.
75.
Loon, M.V. (2003). The impact of Fundamentalist Christian teaching on gay men. Unpublished dissertation, Alliant International University, San Francisco.
76.
Malyon, A. (1982). Psychotherapeutic implications of internalized homophobia in gay men. In J. Gonsiorek (Ed.), Homosexuality and psychotherapy: A practitioners' handbook of affirmative models (pp. 59-70). New York: Haworth Press.
77.
Martin, J.L., & Dean, L.L. (1987). Ego-Dystonic Homosexuality Scale. Unpublished manuscript, Columbia University, New York . Retrieved from http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/ihpitems.html
78.
Mayfield, W. (2001). The development of an internalized homonegativity inventory for gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 41(2), 53-76.
79.
McCarn, S.R., & Fassinger, R.E. (1996). Revisioning sexual minority identity formation: A new model of lesbian identity and its implications for counseling and research. The Counseling Psychologist, 24, 508-534.
80.
McDermott, D., Tyndall, L., & Lichtenberg, J.W. (1989). Factors related to counselor preference among gays and lesbians. Journal of Counseling and Development, 68, 31-35.
81.
McGregor, B.A., Carver, C.S., Antoni, M.H., Weiss, S., Yount, S.E., & Ironson, G. (2001). Distress and internalized homophobia among lesbian women treated for early stage breast cancer. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 1-9.
82.
McGuire, D.K. (1995). Intimacy and internalized homophobia: Predictors of relationship satisfaction in lesbian couples (Doctoral dissertation, University of Akron, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(08), 4626.
83.
McKirnan, D.J., & Peterson, P.L. (1989). Alcohol and drug use among homosexual men and women: Epidemiology and population characteristics. Addictive Behaviors, 14, 545-553.
84.
Melamed, D.K. (1992). Internalized homophobia and lesbian couple functioning (Doctoral dissertation, City University of New York, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts International, 53(07), 3784.
85.
Meyer, I.H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 38-56.
86.
Meyer, I.H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence . Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674-697.
87.
Meyer, I.H., & Dean, L. (1995). Patterns of sexual behavior and risk taking among young New York City gay men. AIDS Education and Prevention , 7(Suppl.), 13-23.
88.
Meyer, I.H., & Dean, L. (1998). Internalized homophobia, intimacy, and sexual behavior among gay and bisexual men. In G. M. Herek (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (pp. 160-186). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
89.
Mildner, C.A. (2001). Sexual minority identity formation and internalized homophobia in lesbians: A validation study of a new instrument and related variables (Doctoral dissertation, Loyola University, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62(05), 2494.
90.
Montano, A. (2000). Psicotrapia con clienti omosessuali. [Psychotherapy with the female homosexual client]Milano, Italy: McGraw-Hill.
91.
Morrow, S.L. (1997). Career development of lesbian and gay youth: Effects of sexual orientation, coming out, and homophobia. In M. B. Harris (Ed.), School experiences of gay and lesbian youth (pp. 1-16). New York: Harrington Park Press.
92.
Murphy, J.A., Rawlings, E.I., & Howe, S.R. (2002). A survey of clinical psychologists on treating lesbian, gay and bisexual clients. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 33, 183-189.
93.
Nicely, E. (2001). Internalized homophobia, stages and processes of change and alcohol use among gay men (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62, 1592.
94.
Nicholson, W.D., & Long, B.C. (1990). Self-esteem, social support, internalized homophobia, and coping strategies of HIV+ gay men. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58(6), 873-876.
95.
Noffsinger-Frazier, N. (2003). When orientations conflict: The role of religious orientation, depression, personalized homonegativity, and religious conflict among predominantly Caucasian LGBT individuals. Division 44 Newsletter, 19(3), 6-8.
96.
Nungesser, L.G. (1983). Homosexual acts, actors, and identities. New York: Praeger.
97.
Ossana, S.M. (2000). Relationship and couples counseling. In R. M. Perez, K. A. DeBord, & K. J. Bieschke (Eds.), Handbook of counseling and psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients (pp. 275-302). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
98.
Parsons, J.T., Bimbi, D.S., Koken, J.A., & Halkitis, P.N. (2005). Factors related to childhood sexual abuse among gay/bisexual male internet escorts. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 14(2), 1-23.
99.
Pedretti, K.R. (2004). After the son comes out: Relationships with parents and levels of homophobia of disclosed versus undisclosed adult gay men (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 2004). Dissertation Abstracts International, 64(08), 4056.
100.
Peplau, L.A. (1991). Lesbian and gay relationships. In J. C. Gonsiorek & J. D. Weinrich (Eds.), Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy (pp. 177-196). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
101.
Peterson, J.L., Coates, T.J., Catania, J.A., Middleton, L., Hilliard, B., & Hearst, N. (1992). High-risk sexual behavior and condom use among gay and bisexual African-American men. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 1490-1494.
102.
Peterson, T.L., & Gerrity, D.A. (2006). Internalized homophobia, lesbian identity development and self-esteem in undergraduate women. Journal of Homosexuality , 50, 49-75.
103.
Pharr, S. (1988). Homophobia: A weapon of sexism. Little Rock, AR: Chardon Press.
104.
Piggot, M. (2004). Double jeopardy: Lesbians and the legacy of multiple stigmatized identities. Unpublished thesis, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia.
105.
Pitman, G.E. (1999). The relationship between body dissatisfaction and internalized homophobia in lesbians (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 1999). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(09), 5105.
106.
Radonsky, V.E., & Borders, L.D. (1995). Factors influencing lesbians' direct disclosure of their sexual orientation. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy, 2(3), 17-37.
107.
Ratti, R., Bakeman, R., & Peterson, J.L. (2000). Correlates of high-risk sexual behaviour among Canadian men of South Asian and European origin who have sex with men. AIDS Care, 12, 193-202.
108.
Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence . Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 5, 631-660.
109.
Rosario, M., Schrimshaw, E.W., & Hunter, J. (2004). Ethnic/racial differences in the coming out process of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths: A comparison of sexual identity development over time. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology , 10, 215-228.
110.
Ross, M.W., & Rosser, B.R. (1996). Measurement and correlates of internalized homophobia: A factor analytic study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 52, 15-21.
111.
Ross, M.W., Rosser, B.R.S., Bauer, G.R., Bockting, W.O., Robinson, B.E., Rugg, D.L., et al.. (2001). Drug use, unsafe sexual behavior, and internalized homonegativitiy in men who have sex with men. AIDS and Behavior, 5, 97-103.
112.
Rosser, B.R.S., Metz, M.E., Bockting, W.O., & Buroker, T. (1997). Sexual difficulties, concerns, and satisfaction in homosexual men: An empirical study with implications for HIV prevention . Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 23, 61-73.
113.
Rostosky, S.S., & Riggle, E.D.B. (2002). "Out" at work: The relation of actor and partner workplace policy and internalized heterosexism to disclosure status. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 411-419.
114.
Rowan, K.S. (2004). Emotional intelligence and well-being: Implications for lesbian and bisexual women. Unpublished master's thesis, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond.
115.
Rowen, C.J., & Malcolm, J.P. (2002). Correlates of internalized homophobia and homosexual identity formation in a sample of gay men. Journal of Homosexuality , 43(2), 77-92.
116.
Sanchez, F.J. (2005). The relationship between masculine gender role conflict, negative identity and being out (Doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa, 2005). Dissertation Abstracts International, 66(08), 3118A.
117.
Sbordone, A.J. (1993). Gay men choosing fatherhood (Doctoral dissertation, City University of New York, 1993). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54(06), 3351.
118.
Shidlo, A. (1994). Internalized homophobia: Conceptual and empirical issues in measurement. In B. Greene & G. M. Herek (Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research and clinical application (pp. 176-205). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
119.
Shidlo, A., & Schroeder, M. (2002). Changing sexual orientation: A consumer's report . Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 33, 249-259.
120.
Shires, A., & Miller, D. (1998). A preliminary study comparing psychological factors associated with erectile dysfunction in heterosexual and homosexual men. Sexual and Marital Therapy, 13, 37-49.
121.
Skinner, W.F., & Otis, M.D. (1996). Drug and alcohol use among lesbian and gay people in a Southern U.S. sample: Epidemiological, comparative, and methodological findings from the Trilogy Project. Journal of Homosexuality , 30, 59-91.
122.
Sophie, J. (1987). Internalized homophobia and lesbian identity. Journal of Homosexuality, 14, 53-65.
123.
Stokes, J.P., & Peterson, J. (1998). Homophobia, self-esteem and risk for HIV among African American men who have sex with men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 10, 278-292.
124.
Stokes, J.P., Vanable, P.A., & McKirnan, D.J. (1996). Ethnic differences in sexual behavior, condom use, and psychosocial variables among Black and White men who have sex with men. Journal of Sex Research, 33, 373-381.
125.
Szymanski, D.M. (2004). Relations among dimensions of feminism and internalized heterosexism in lesbians and bisexual women. Sex Roles, 51(3/4), 145-159.
126.
Szymanski, D.M. (2005). Heterosexism and sexism correlates of psychological distress in lesbians. Journal of Counseling & Development , 83, 355-360.
127.
Szymanski, D.M. (2006). Does internalized heterosexism moderate the link between heterosexist events and lesbians' psychological distress? Sex Roles, 54, 227-234.
128.
Szymanski, D.M., & Chung, Y.B. (2001a, August). Lesbian internalized homophobia in relation to same-sex relationships, feminist attitudes, and coping resources. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association Annual Convention, San Francisco.
129.
Szymanski, D.M., & Chung, Y.B. (2001b). The Lesbian Internalized Homophobia Scale: A rational/theoretical approach. Journal of Homosexuality, 41(2), 37-52.
130.
Szymanski, D.M., & Chung, Y.B. (2003). Feminist attitudes and coping resources as correlates of lesbian internalized heterosexism. Feminism & Psychology , 13, 369-389.
131.
Szymanski, D.M., Chung, Y.B., & Balsam, K. (2001). Psychosocial correlates of internalized homophobia in lesbians. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34, 27-38.
132.
Tozer, E.E., & Hayes, J.A. (2004). Why do individuals seek conversion therapy? The role of religiosity, internalized homonegativity, and identity development . The Counseling Psychologist, 32, 716-740.
133.
Vincke, J., Bolton, R., Mak, R., & Blank, S. (1993). Coming out and AIDS-related high-risk sexual behavior . Archives of Sexual Behavior, 22, 559-586.
134.
Voisard, B.S. (1995). Self-disclosure in lesbian identity development (Doctoral dissertation, University of Utah, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56, 1723.
135.
Wagner, G., Brondolo, E., & Rabkin, J. (1996). Internalized homophobia in a sample of HIV+ gay men, and its relationship to psychological distress, coping, and illness progression . Journal of Homosexuality, 32(2), 91-106.
136.
Wagner, G., Serafini, J., Rabkin, J., Remien, R., & Williams, J. (1994). Integration of one's religion and homosexuality: A weapon against internalized homophobia? Journal of Homosexuality , 26(4), 91-109.
137.
Walsh, W.M. (1995). Social support factors among lesbians with a positive sexual identity (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(05), 28-91.
138.
Weinberg, G. (1972). Society and the healthy homosexual. New York: St. Martin's.
139.
Welch, D. (1998). The effects of homosexual identity development, ego identity development and social self-esteem on levels of internalized homophobia in gay men (Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(04), 1890.
140.
Wolcott, D., Namir, S., Fawzy, F., Gottlieb, M., & Mitsuyasu, R. (1986). Illness concerns, attitudes towards homosexuality, and social support in gay men with AIDS. General Hospital Psychiatry, 8, 395-403.
141.
Worell, J., & Remer, P. (2003). Feminist perspectives in therapy: Empowering diverse women (2nd ed). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
142.
Zuckerman, M. (1998). Sexual orientation disclosure and its relationship to psychological distress, immune, and physical health status variables in HIV-infection (Doctoral dissertation, University of Miami, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(12), 6500.
