Counseling psychologists can expect to encounter lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals in their lives, as students, colleagues, friends, clients, and/or family members. Most of the LGB individuals encountered by counseling psychologists have experienced the negative consequences of internalized heterosexism/internalized homophobia (IH). Yet many counseling psychologists are not adequately prepared to deal with the negative effects of IH on LGB persons' lives. This Major Contribution provides readers with a critical base of information about the construct of IH, including the historical context from which it emerged; controversies related to IH; theoretical approaches used to conceptualize IH; unique issues for women, men, and bisexuals; and the empirical research on measurement and psychosocial correlates of IH. In addition, it provides suggestions for future research and implications for counseling LGB individuals and for the training of counseling psychologists.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allport, G.W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
2.
Balsam, K.F., & Szymanski, D.M. (2005). Relationship quality and domestic violence in women's same-sex relationships: The role of minority stress. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 258-269.
3.
Bos, F., van Balen, H.M., van den Boom, D.C., & Sandfort, G.M. (2004). Minority stress, experiences of parenthood and child adjustment in lesbian families. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 22(4), 1-14.
4.
Brooks, V.R. (1981). Minority stress and lesbian women. Lexington, MA: D. C. Health.
5.
Brown, L.S. (1988). Feminist therapy with lesbians and gay men. In M. A. Dutton-Douglas & L. E. A. Walker (Eds.), Feminist psychotherapies: Integration of therapeutic and feminist systems (pp. 206-227). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
6.
Brown, L.S. (1994). Subversive dialogues. New York : Basic Books.
7.
Cass, V.C. (1979). Homosexual identity formation: A theoretical model . Journal of Homosexuality, 4, 219-235.
8.
Chung, Y.B., & Szymanski, D.M. (2006). Racial and sexual identities of AsianAmerican gay men. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling , 1(2), 67-93.
9.
Cooley, C.H. (1956). Human nature and the social order. New York: Free Press.
10.
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96, 608-630.
11.
Crocker, J., Major, B., & Steele, C. (1998). Social stigma. In D. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., pp. 504-553). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
12.
DiPlacido, J. (1998). Minority stress among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals: A consequence of homophobia, heterosexism, and stigmatization. In G. M. Herek (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (pp. 138-159). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
13.
Dohrenwend, B.P. (2000). The role of adversity and stress in psychopathology: Some evidence and its implications for theory and research. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 1-19.
14.
Dworkin, S.H. (2001). Treating the bisexual client. JCLP/In Session: Psychotherapy in Practice, 57, 671-680.
15.
Enns, C.Z. (2004). Feminist theories and feminist psychotherapies: Origins, themes, and diversity (2nd ed.). New York: Haworth.
16.
Fox, R.C. (2000). Bisexuality in perspective: A review of theory and research. In B. Greene & G. L. Croom (Eds.), Education, research, and practice in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered psychology: A resource manual (pp. 161-206). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
17.
From, A.E. (2000). Do ethnic identity and internalized homophobia affect the coming out process for African American men and women (Doctoral dissertation, Spalding University, 2000). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(07), 3841B.
18.
Gonsiorek, J.C., & Rudolph, J.R. (1991). Homosexual identity: Coming out and other developmental events. In J. C. Gonsiorek & J. D. Weinrich (Eds.), Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy (pp. 161-176). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
19.
Guidry, L.L. (1999). Clinical intervention with bisexuals: A contextualized understanding. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice , 30, 22-26.
20.
Herek, G. (1995). Psychological heterosexism in the United States . In A. D'Augelli & C. Patterson (Eds.), Lesbian, gay, and bisexual identities over the lifespan: Psychological perspectives (pp. 321-346). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
21.
Herek, G.M. (1994). Assessing heterosexuals' attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: A review of empirical research with the ATLG scale. In B. Greene & G. M. Herek (Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research and clinical applications (pp. 206-228). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
22.
Herek, G.M. (2004). Beyond "homophobia": Thinking about sexual prejudice and stigma in the twenty-first century. Sexuality Research and Social Policy: Journal of NSRC, 1(2), 6-24.
23.
Hudson, W., & Ricketts, W.A. (1980). A strategy for measurement of homophobia. Journal of Homosexuality, 5, 357-371.
24.
Huebner, D.M., Davis, M.C., Nemeroff, C.J., & Aiken, L.S. (2002). The impact of internalized homophobia on HIV preventive interventions. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 327-348.
25.
Israel, T., & Mohr, J.J. (2004). Attitudes toward bisexual women and men: Current research, future directions. Journal of Bisexuality, 4, 117-134.
26.
Kashubeck-West, S., & Szymanski, D.M. (2008). Risky sexual behavior in gay and bisexual men: Internalized heterosexism, sensation seeking, and substance use. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 595-614.
27.
Kashubeck-West, S., Szymanski, D.M., & Meyer, J. (2008). Internalized heterosexism: Clinical implications and training considerations. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 615-630.
28.
Kauth, M.R., Hartwig, M.J., & Kalichman, S.C. (2000). Health behavior relevant to psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. In R. M. Perez, K. A. DeBord, & K. J. Bieschke (Eds.), Handbook of counseling and psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients (pp. 435-456). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
29.
Kitzinger, C. (1996). Speaking of oppression: Psychology, politics and the language of power. In E. D. Rothblum & L. Bond (Eds.), Preventing homophobia and heterosexism (pp. 3-19). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
30.
Kitzinger, C., & Perkins, R. (1993). Changing our minds: Lesbian feminism and psychology . New York: University Press.
31.
Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
32.
Malyon, A. (1982). Psychotherapeutic implications of internalized homophobia in gay men. In J. Gonsiorek (Ed.), Homosexuality and psychotherapy: A practitioners' handbook of affirmative models (pp. 59-70). New York: Haworth Press.
33.
Mayfield, W. (2001). The development of an internalized homonegativity inventory for gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 41(2), 53-76.
34.
Mazure, C.M., Keita, G.P., & Blehar, M.D. (2002). Summit on women and depression: Proceedings and recommendations. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Available at http://www.apa.org/pi/wpo/women&depression.pdf
35.
McCarn, S.R., & Fassinger, R.E. (1996). Revisioning sexual minority identity formation: A new model of lesbian identity and its implications for counseling and research. The Counseling Psychologist, 24, 508-534.
36.
Mead, G.H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago : University of Chicago Press.
37.
Meyer, I.H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 38-56.
38.
Meyer, I.H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence . Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674-697.
39.
Meyer, I.H., & Dean, L. (1998). Internalized homophobia, intimacy, and sexual behavior among gay and bisexual men. In G. M. Herek (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (pp. 160-186). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
40.
Moradi, B., & Subich, L.M. (2003) A concomitant examination of the relations of perceived racist and sexist events to psychological distress for AfricanAmerican women. The Counseling Psychologist, 31(4), 451-469.
41.
Morrow, S.L. (2000). First do no harm: Therapists issues in psychotherapy with lesbian, gay and bisexual clients. In R. M. Perez, K. A. DeBord, & K. J. Bieschke (Eds.), Handbook of counseling and psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients (pp. 137-156). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association .
42.
Ochs, R. (1996). Biphobia: It goes more than two ways. In B. A. Firestein (Ed.), Bisexuality: The psychology and politics of an invisible minority (pp. 3-50). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
43.
Perkins, R. (1991). Therapy for lesbians? The case against. Feminism & Psychology, 1, 325-338.
44.
Pharr, S. (1988). Homophobia: A weapon of sexism. Little Rock, AR: Chardon Press.
45.
Piggot, M. (2004). Double jeopardy: Lesbians and the legacy of multiple stigmatized identities. Unpublished thesis, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia.
46.
Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence . Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 5, 631-660.
47.
Rotosky, S.S., & Riggle, E.D.B. (2002). "Out" at work: The relation of actor and partner workplace policy and internalized heterosexism to disclosure status. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 411-419.
48.
Russell, G.M., & Richards, J.A. (2003). Stressor and resilience factors for lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals confronting antigay politics . American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 313-328.
49.
Sophie, J. (1987). Internalized homophobia and lesbian identity. Journal of Homosexuality, 14, 53-65.
50.
Szymanski, D.M. (2004). Relations among dimensions of feminism and internalized heterosexism in lesbians and bisexual women. Sex Roles, 51(3/4), 145-159.
51.
Szymanski, D.M. (2005a). A feminist approach to working with internalized heterosexism in lesbians. Journal of College Counseling, 8, 74-85.
52.
Szymanski, D.M. (2005b). Heterosexism and sexism as correlates of psychological distress in lesbians. Journal of Counseling & Development , 83, 355-360.
53.
Szymanski, D.M. (2006). Does internalized heterosexism moderate the link between heterosexist events and lesbians' psychological distress? Sex Roles, 54, 227-234.
54.
Szymanski, D.M. (2008). Counseling lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered clients. In G. Mcauliffe (Ed.), Culturally alert counseling: A comprehensive introduction (pp. 466-505). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
55.
Szymanski, D.M., & Chung, Y.B. (2003a). Feminist attitudes and coping resources as correlates of lesbian internalized heterosexism. Feminism & Psychology , 13, 369-389.
56.
Szymanski, D.M., & Chung, Y.B. (2003b). Internalized homophobia in lesbians. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 7(1), 115-125.
57.
Szymanski, D.M., & Kashubeck-West, S. (2008). Mediators of the relationship between internalized oppressions and lesbian and bisexual women's psychological distress. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 575-594.
58.
Szymanski, D.M., Kashubeck-West, S., & Meyer, J. (2008). Internalized heterosexism: Measurement, psychosocial correlates, and research directions. The Counseling Psychologist , 36, 525-574.
59.
Weinberg, G. (1972). Society and the healthy homosexual. New York: St. Martin's.
60.
Whitman, J.S. (1995). Providing training about sexual orientation in counselor education. Counselor Education and Supervision, 35, 168-176.
61.
Worell, J., & Remer, P. (2003). Feminist perspectives in therapy: Empowering diverse women (2nd ed). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
