Many theorists have suggested that living in a culture in which women's bodies are sexually objectified socializes girls and women to treat themselves as objects. This study developed a theory-based measure of cultural sexual objectification and explored the relationship between women's reports of cultural sexual objectification experiences and self-objectification. The possible moderating effects of sexual orientation were explored using hierarchical moderated regressions. The major findings, in a sample of 361 women, were (a) women's reports of sexualized gaze/harassment were significantly related to their own self-objectification, (b) lesbian and heterosexual women reported similar levels of sexualized gaze/harassment, and (c) the relationship between sexualized gaze/harassment and self-objectification was not significantly different for the lesbian and heterosexual subsamples. Potential implications for counseling and directions for future research are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Arredondo, P. (1999). Multicultural counseling competencies as tools to address oppression and racism. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77, 102-108.
2.
Balsam, K.F., Rothblum, E.D., & Beauchaine, T.P. (2005). Victimization over the life span: A comparison of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and heterosexual siblings . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 477-487.
3.
Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
4.
Bartky, S.L. (1990). Femininity and domination: Studies in the phenomenology of oppression. New York: Routledge .
5.
Belknap, J., Fischer, B.S., & Cullen, F.T. (1999). The development of a comprehensive measure of the sexual victimization of college women. Violence Against Women, 5, 185-214.
6.
Beren, S.E., Hayden, H.A., Wilfley, D.E., & Grilo, C.M. (1996). The influence of sexual orientation on body dissatisfaction in adult men and women. International Journal of Eating Disorders , 20, 135-141.
7.
Beren, S.E., Hayden, H.A., Wilfley, D.E., & Striegel-Moore, R.H. (1997). Body dissatisfaction among lesbian college students: The conflict of straddling mainstream and lesbian cultures. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 431-445.
8.
Berger, J. (1972). Ways of seeing. London: Penguin .
9.
Bergeron, S.M., & Senn, C.Y. (1998). Body image and sociocultural norms: A comparison of heterosexual and lesbian women. Psychology of Women Quarterly , 22, 385-401.
10.
Bieschke, K. J.,Perez, R. M., & DeBord, K. A. (Eds.). (2007). Handbook of counseling and psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender clients (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
11.
Blumstein, P., & Schwartz, P. (1983). American couples: Money, work, and sex. New York: William Morrow.
12.
Bossick, B. (2002). Objectification theory: The link between cultural and self-objectification and the moderating effects of neuroticism. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Akron, OH.
13.
Brand, P.A., Rothblum, E.D., & Solomon, L.A. (1992). A comparison of lesbians, gay men, and heterosexuals on weight and restrained eating. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11, 253-259.
14.
Brooks, G.R. (1995). The centerfold syndrome. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
15.
Brown, L.S. (1987). Lesbians, weight, and eating: New analyses and perspectives. In Boston Lesbian Psychologies Collective (Ed.), Lesbian psychologies (pp. 294-309). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
16.
Brown, L.S. (1994). Subversive dialogues: Theory in feminist therapy . New York: Basic Books.
17.
Brownlow, B.S. (1997). The relationship between objectification, body image disturbances, and disordered eating: Investigating race, socioeconomic status, acculturation and self-objectification as mediators. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Duke University, Durham, NC.
18.
Burnett, R.E. (1995). Gender objectification experiences: Construct validation, implications for dysphoria and depression, and phenomenology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Duke University, Durham, NC.
19.
Calogero, R.M., Davis, W.N., & Thompson, J.K. (2005). The role of self-objectification in the experience of women with eating disorders. Sex Roles , 52, 43-50.
20.
Cattarin, J.A., Thompson, J.K., Thomas, C., & Williams, R. (2000). Body image, mood, and televised images of attractiveness: The role of social comparison. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 19, 220-239.
21.
Chung, Y.B., & Katayama, M. (1996). Assessment of sexual orientation in lesbian/gay/bisexual studies. Journal of Homosexuality, 30, 49-62.
22.
Cutler, S.E., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Accounting for sex differences in depression through female victimization: Childhood sexual abuse. Sex Roles, 24, 425-438.
23.
de Beauvoir, S. (1952). The second sex (H. M. Parshley, Trans.). New York: Knopf.
24.
Deep, A.L., Lilenfeld, L.R., Plotnicov, K.H., Pollice, C., & Kaye, W.H. (1999). Sexual abuse in eating disorder subtypes and control women: The role of comorbid substance dependence in bulimia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25, 1-10.
25.
Dworkin, S.H. (1988). Not in man's image: Lesbians and the cultural oppression of body image. Women & Therapy, 8, 27-39.
26.
Enns, C.Z. (2000). Gender issues in counseling. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology (pp. 601-638). New York: John Wiley.
27.
Everett, J.E., & Entrekin, L.V. (1980). Factor comparability and the advantages of multiple group factor analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 15, 165-180.
28.
Ferguson, A. (1985). Lesbian identity: Behavior and history. Women's Studies International Forum, 8, 203-208.
29.
Fitzgerald, L.F., Drasgow, F., Hulin, C.L., Gelfand, M.J., & Magley, V.J. (1997). Antecedents and consequences of sexual harassment in organizations: A test of an integrated model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 578-589.
30.
Fitzgerald, L.F., Shullman, S.L., Bailey, N., Richards, M., Swecker, J., Gold, Y., et al. (1988). The incidence and dimensions of sexual harassment in academia and the workplace. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 32, 152-175.
31.
Frazier, P.A., Tix, A.P., & Barron, K.E. (2004). Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 115-134.
32.
Fredrickson, B.L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173-206.
33.
Fredrickson, B.L., Roberts, T., Noll, S.M., Quinn, D.M., & Twenge, J.M. (1998). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 269-284.
34.
Fukuyama, M.A., & Ferguson, A.D. (2000). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual people of color: Understanding cultural complexity and managing multiple oppressions . In R. M. Perez, K. A. DeBord, & K. J. Bieschke (Eds.), Handbook of counseling and psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients (pp. 81-105). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
35.
Gidycz, C.A., & Koss, M.P. (1989). The impact of adolescent sexual victimization: Standardized measures of anxiety, depression, and behavioral deviancy. Violence & Victims, 4, 139-149.
36.
Gilbert, L.A. (1992). Gender and counseling psychology: Current knowledge and directions for research and social action. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology (pp. 383-416). New York: John Wiley.
37.
Greenleaf, C. (2005). Self-objectification among physically active women . Sex Roles, 52, 51-62.
38.
Hall, J.A. (1984). Nonverbal sex differences: Communication accuracy and expressive style. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
39.
Harrison, K., & Cantor, J. (1997). The relationship between media consumption and eating disorders. Journal of Communication, 47, 40-67.
40.
Hebl, M.R., King, E.B., & Lin, J. (2004). The swimsuit becomes us all: Ethnicity, gender, and vulnerability to self-objectification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1322-1331.
41.
Heffernan, K. (1999). Lesbians and the internalization of societal standards of weight and appearance. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 3, 121-127.
42.
Johnston, J. (1997). Appearance obsession: Women's reactions to men's objectification of their bodies. In R. F. Levant & G. R. Brooks (Eds.), Men and sex: New psychological perspectives (pp. 61-83). New York: John Wiley.
43.
Kaschak, E. (1992). Engendered lives: A new psychology of women's experience. New York: Basic Books .
44.
Klonoff, E.A., & Landrine, H. (1995). The Schedule of Sexist Events: A measure of lifetime and recent sexist discrimination in women's lives. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 439-472.
45.
Koch, N.S., & Emrey, J.A. (2001). The Internet and opinion measurement: Surveying marginalized populations. Social Science Quarterly, 82, 131-138.
46.
Koss, M.P., & Oros, C.J. (1982). Sexual Experiences Survey: A research instrument investigating sexual aggression and victimization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 455-457.
47.
Martin, K. (1996). Puberty, sexuality, and the self: Boys and girls at adolescence. New York: Routledge .
48.
McKinley, N.M., & Hyde, J.S. (1996). The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 181-215.
49.
Miner-Rubino, K., Twenge, J.M., & Fredrickson, B.L. (2002). Trait self-objectification in women: Affective and personality correlates. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 147-172.
50.
Moradi, B., Dirks, D., & Matteson, A.V. (2005). Roles of sexual objectification experiences and internalization of standards of beauty in eating disorder symptomatology: A test and extension of objectification theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 420-428.
51.
Morry, M.M., & Staska, S.L. (2001). Magazine exposure: Internalization, self-objectification, eating attitudes, and body satisfaction in male and female university students . Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 33, 269-279.
52.
Muehlenkamp, J.J., & Saris-Baglama, R.N. (2002). Self-objectification and its psychological outcomes for college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 371-379.
53.
Muehlenkamp, J.J., Swanson, J.D., & Brausch, A.M. (2005). Self-objectification, risk taking, and self-harm in college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 24-32.
54.
Myers, A., Taub, J., Morris, J.F., & Rothblum, E.D. (1999). Beauty mandates and the appearance obsession: Are lesbian and bisexual women better off? Journal of Lesbian Studies, 3, 15-26.
55.
Noffsinger-Frazier, N.A. (2004). Objectification theory and disordered eating: The impact of feminist identification, internalization of sociocultural standards of appearance, and sexual orientation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Memphis, TN.
56.
Noll, S.M. (1996). The relationship between sexual objectification and disordered eating: Correlational and experimental tests of body shame as a mediator. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Duke University, Durham, NC.
57.
Noll, S.M., & Fredrickson, B.L. (1998). A mediational model linking self-objectification, body shame, and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 623-636.
58.
Parsons, E.M., & Betz, N.E. (2001). The relationship of participation in sports and physical activity to body objectification, instrumentality, and locus of control among young women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 209-222.
59.
Phillips, J.C., Ingram, K.M., Smith, N.G., & Mindes, E.J. (2003). Methodological and content review of lesbian-, gay-, and bisexual-related articles in counseling journals: 1990-1999. The Counseling Psychologist, 31, 25-62.
60.
Pitman, G.E. (1999). Body image, compulsory heterosexuality, and internalized homophobia. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 3, 129-139.
61.
Root, M.P. (1990). Resolving "other" status: Identity development of biracial individuals. Women & Therapy, 9, 185-205.
62.
Rothblum, E.D. (1994). Lesbians and physical appearance: Which model applies? In B. Greene & G. M. Herek (Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 84-97). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
63.
Sell, R.L. (1997). Defining and measuring sexual orientation: A review . Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26, 643-658.
64.
Share, T.L., & Mintz, L.B. (2002). Differences between lesbians and heterosexual women in disordered eating and related attitudes. Journal of Homosexuality, 42, 89-106.
65.
Siever, M.D. (1994). Sexual orientation and gender as factors in socioculturally acquired vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 252-260.
66.
Spitzack, C. (1990). Confessing excess: Women and the politics of body reduction. Albany: State University of New York Press.
67.
Stoltenberg, J. (1989). Refusing to be a man. New York : Penguin.
68.
Strelan, P., & Hargreaves, D. (2005). Women who objectify other women: The vicious circle of objectification? Sex Roles, 52, 707-712.
69.
Striegel-Moore, R.H., McAvay, G., & Rodin, J. (1986). Psychological and behavioral correlates of feeling fat in women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 5, 935-947.
70.
Striegel-Moore, R.H., Tucker, N., & Hsu, J. (1990). Body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating in lesbian college students. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 9, 493-500.
71.
Strong, S.M., Williamson, D.A., Netemeyer, R.G., & Geer, J.H. (2000). Eating disorder symptoms and concerns about body differ as a function of gender and sexual orientation. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 19, 240-255.
72.
Swim, J.K., Cohen, L.L., & Hyers, L.L. (1998). Experiencing everyday prejudice and discrimination . In J. K. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target's perspective (pp. 37-60). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
73.
Swim, J.K., Hyers, L.L., Cohen, L.L., & Ferguson, M.J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31-53.
74.
Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. (1996). Using multivariate statistics (3rd ed.). New York: HarperCollins .
75.
Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). New York: HarperCollins .
76.
Tiggemann, M., & Kuring, J.K. (2004). The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood. British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 43, 299-311.
77.
Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2001). A test of objectification theory in former dancers and non-dancers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 57-64.
78.
Tylka, T.L., & Hill, M.S. (2004). Objectification theory as it relates to disordered eating among college women. Sex Roles, 51, 719-730.
79.
Vanleeuwen, D.M., & Mandabach, K.H. (2002). A note on the reliability of ranked items. Sociological Methods and Research, 31, 87-105.
80.
van Zoonen, L. (1994). Feminist media studies. London : Sage.
