This article reviews the online-counseling literature with an emphasis on current applications and considerations for future research. It focuses on primary themes of counseling psychology including the history of process-outcome research and multiculturalism. It explores current gaps in the literature from a counseling psychology framework, including the field’s focus on normal and developmental challenges and tasks, client strength and resilience, education and career development, prevention and wellness, and multiculturalism. In general, current evidence indicates that online counseling may be a viable service option for some clients, especially those who are typically isolated; however, questions remain regarding the effectiveness and appropriateness of online counseling.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Addis, M. E., & Mahalik, J. R. (2003). Men, masculinity, and the contexts of help seeking. American Psychologist, 58, 5-14.
2.
Alleman, J. R. (2002). Online counseling: The Internet and mental health treatment. Psychotherapy, 39, 199-209.
3.
Bachelor, A. (1991). Comparison and relationship to outcome of diverse dimensions of the helping alliance as seen by client and therapist. Psychotherapy, 28, 534-549.
4.
Barak, A. (1999). Psychological applications on the Internet: A discipline on the threshold of a new millennium. Applied & Preventive Psychology, 8, 231-245.
5.
Barak, A., & LaCrosse, M. B. (1975). Multidimensional perception of counselor behavior. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 22, 471-476.
6.
Barkhi, R., Jacob, V. S., & Pirkul, H. (1999). An experimental analysis of face to face versus computer mediated communication channels. Group Decision and Negotiation, 8, 325-347.
7.
Battle, C. C., Imber, S. D., Hoehn-Saric, R., Stone, A. R., Nash, E. R., & Frank, J. D. (1966). Target complaints as criteria for improvement. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 20, 184-192.
8.
Baughman, W. A., Norris, D. G., Cooke, A. E., Peterson, N. G., & Mumford, M. D. (1999). An occupational information system for the 21st century: The development of O*NET. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
9.
Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571.
10.
Bloom, J. W. (1998). The ethical practice of Web counseling. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 26, 53-59.
11.
Braithwaite, D. O., Waldron, V. R., & Finn, J. (1999). Communication of social support in computer-mediated groups for people with disabilities. Health Communication, 11, 123-151.
12.
Brammer, L., Alcorn, J., Birk, J., Gazda, G., Hurst, J., LaFromboise, T., et al. (1988). Organizational and political issues in counseling psychology: Recommendations for change. The Counseling Psychologist, 16, 407-422.
13.
Bresnahan, M. J., & Murray-Johnson, L. (2002). The healing Web. Health Care for Women International, 23, 398-407.
14.
Chang, T., Yeh, C. J., & Krumboltz, J. D. (2001). Process and outcome evaluation of an on-line support group for Asian American male college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 319-329.
15.
Childress, C. A., & Asamen, J. K. (1998). The emerging relationship of psychology and the Internet: Proposed guidelines for conducting Internet intervention research. Ethics & Behavior, 8, 19-35.
16.
Clement, P. F., Brooks, F. R., Dean, B., & Galaz, A. (2001). A neuropsychology telemedicine clinic. Military Medicine, 166, 382-384.
17.
Cohen, G. E., & Kerr, B. A. (1998). Computer-mediated counseling: An empirical study of a new mental health treatment. Computers in Human Services, 15, 13-26.
18.
Converse, P. D., Oswald, F. L., Gillespie, M. A., Field, K. A., Bizot, E. B., & Smither, J. W. (2004). Matching individuals to occupations using abilities and the O*NET: Issues and an application in career guidance. Personnel Psychology, 57, 451-487.
19.
Conyne, R. K. (1987). Primary preventive counseling: Empowering people and systems. Muncie, IN: Accelerated Development.
20.
Cook, J. E., & Doyle, C. (2002). Working alliance in online therapy as compared to face-to-face therapy: Preliminary results. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 5, 95-105.
21.
Cutrona, C. E., & Suhr, J. A. (1992). Controllability of stressful events and satisfaction with spouse support behaviors. Communication Research, 19, 154-174.
22.
Day, S. X., & Schneider, P. L. (2000). The subjective experiences of therapists in face-to-face, video, and audio sessions. In J. W. Bloom & G. R. Garry (Eds.), Cybercounseling and cyberlearning: Strategies and resources for the millennium (pp. 203-218). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
23.
Day, S. X., & Schneider, P. L. (2002). Psychotherapy using distance technology: A comparison offace-to-face, video, and audio treatment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 499-503.
24.
DeAngelis, T. (2002). New data on lesbian, gay, and bisexual mental health. Monitor on Psychology, 33, 46-47.
25.
Derogatis, L. R. (1977). SCL-90 (R): Administration, Scoring and Procedures Manual-I for the revised version of Other Instruments of the Psychopathology Rating Scale series. Baltimore: Clinical Psychometrics Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University of Medicine.
26.
Derogatis, L. R., & Coons, H. L. (1993). Self-report measures of stress. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.). Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (2nd ed., pp. 200-233). New York: Free Press.
27.
Dongier, M., Tempier, R., Lalinec-Michaud, M., & Meuneir, D. (1986). Telepsychiatry: Psychiatric consultation through two-way television: A controlled study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 31, 32-34.
28.
Donnelly, J. M., Kornblith, A. B., Fleishman, S., Zuckerman, E., Raptis, G., Hudis, C. A., et al. (2000). A pilot study of interpersonal psychotherapy by telephone with cancer patients and their partners. Psycho-oncology, 9, 44-56.
29.
Eckert, P. A. (1993). Acceleration of change: Catalysts in brief therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 241-253.
30.
Finfgeld, D. L. (1999). Psychotherapy in cyberspace. Journal of the American PsychiatricNurses Association, 5, 105-110.
31.
Finn, J. (1999). An exploration of helping processes in an online self-help group focusing on issues of disability. Health and Social Work, 24, 220-231.
32.
Friedman, E. H., & Grant, J. S. (2003). Re: Telephone intervention with family caregivers of stroke survivors after rehabilitation. Stroke, 34, 7-8.
33.
Gahan, C., & Hannibal, M. (1998). Doing qualitative research using QSR Nud•ist. London: Sage.
34.
Gaston, L., Piper, W. E., Debbane, E. G., Bienvenu, J., & Garant, J. (1994). Alliance and technique for prediction outcome in short- and long-term analytic psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Research, 4, 121-135.
35.
Gelso, C. J., & Carter, J. (1994). Components of the psychotherapy relationship: Their interaction and unfolding during treatment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 296-306.
36.
Gelso, C. J., & Fretz, B. R. (2000). Counseling psychology (2nd ed.). Forth Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.
37.
Glueckauf, R. L., Fritz, S. P., Ecklund-Johnson, E. P., Liss, H. J., Dages, P., & Carney, P. (2002). Videoconferencing-based family counseling for rural teenagers with epilepsy: Phase 1 findings. Rehabilitation Psychology, 47, 49-72.
38.
Glueckauf, R. L., Whitton, J. D., & Nickelson, D. W. (2001). Telehealth: The new frontier in rehabilitation and healthcare. In M. J. Scherer (Ed.), Assistive technology: Matching device and consumer for successful rehabilitation (pp. 197-213). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
39.
Grant, J. S., Elliott, T. R., Weaver, M., Bartolucci, A. A., & Giger, J. N. (2002). Telephone intervention with family caregivers of stroke survivors after rehabilitation. Stroke, 33, 2060-2065.
40.
Gresham, F. M., & Elliott, S. N. (1990). Social skills rating system manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
41.
Griffiths, M. (2001). Online therapy: A cause for concern?Psychologist, 14, 244-248.
42.
Grohol, J. M. (2002). The insider’s guide to mental health resources online. New York: Guilford.
43.
Grohol, J. M. (2004). Online counseling: A historical perspective. In R. Kraus, J. Zack, & G. Stricker (Eds.), Online counseling: A handbook for mental health professionals (pp. 51-68). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
44.
Gustafson, D. H., Hawkins, R., Boberg, E., Pingree, S., Serlin, R. E., Graziano, F., & Chan, C. L. (1999). Impact of a patient-centered, computer-based health information/support system. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 16, 1-9.
45.
Harris Interactive. (2002). Cyberchondriacs continue to grow in America. Health Care News, 2, 1-2.
46.
Hartley, D. E., & Strupp, H. H. (1983). The therapeutic alliance: Its relationship to outcome in brief psychotherapy. In J. Masling (Ed.), Empirical studies in analytic theories (pp. 1-37). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
47.
Henderson, M., & Freeman, C. P. (1987). A self-rating scale for bulimia. The “BITE.”British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 18-24.
48.
Henry, W. P., Strupp, H. H., Schacht, T. E., & Gaston, L. (1994). Psychodynamic approaches. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4th ed., pp. 467-508). New York: John Wiley.
49.
Heppner, P. P. (1978). A review of the problem-solving literature and its relationship to the counseling process. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 25, 366-375.
50.
Heppner, P. P., Kivlighan, D. M., Jr., & Wampold, B. E. (1992). Research design in counseling. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
51.
Hewson, C. M., Laurent, D., & Vogel, C. M. (1996). Proper methodologies for psychological studies conducted via the Internet. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 28, 186-191.
52.
Hill, C. E. (1978). Development of a counselor verbal response category system. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 25, 461-468.
53.
Hill, C. E., & O’Brien, K. M. (1999). Helping skills: Facilitating exploration, insight, and action. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
54.
Hoffman, D. L., Novak, T. P., & Schlosser, A. (2000). The evolution of the digital divide: How gaps in Internet access may impact electronic commerce. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 5, 233-245.
55.
Hopps, S. L., Pepin, M., & Boisvert, J. (2003). The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral group therapy for loneliness via inter relay chat among people with physical disabilities. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 40, 136-147.
56.
Horowitz, M. J., Wilner, N., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of event scale: A measure of subject stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 209-218.
57.
Horvath, A. O., & Greenberg, L. S. (1989). Development and validation of the Working Alliance Inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 223-233.
58.
Horvath, A. O., & Luborsky, L. (1993). The role of the therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 561-573.
59.
Horvath, A. O., & Symonds, B. D. (1991). Relations between working alliance and outcome in psychotherapy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 139-149.
60.
Hsiung, R. C. (2000). The best of both worlds: An online self-help group hosted by a mental health professional. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 3, 935-950.
61.
Hufford, B. J., Glueckauf, R. L., & Webb, P. M. (1999). Home-based, interactive videoconferencing for adolescents with epilepsy and their families. Rehabilitation Psychology, 44, 176-193.
62.
Hugo, P., Segwick, P., Black, A., & Lacey, H. (1999). Telephone counselling—The EDA approach. European Eating Disorders Review, 7, 300-309.
63.
Huws, J. C., Jones, R. S. P., & Ingledew, D. K. (2001). Parents of children with autism using an email group: A grounded theory study. Journal of Health Psychology, 6, 569-584.
64.
Jencius, M., & Sager, D. E. (2001). The practice of marriage and family counseling in cyberspace. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 9, 295-301.
65.
Katz, A. H., & Maida, C. A. (1990). Health and disability self-help organization. In T. J. Powell (Ed.), Working with self-help (pp. 141-155). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Work.
66.
Kaye, B. K., & Johnson, T. J. (1999). Research methodology: Taming the cyber frontier. Social Science Computer Review, 17, 323-337.
67.
Kiselica, M. S., & Look, C. T. (1993). Mental health counseling and prevention: Disparity between philosophy and practice?Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 15, 3-14.
68.
Kraus, R. (2004). Ethical and legal considerations for providers of mental health services online. In R. Kraus, J. Zack, & G. Stricker (Eds.), Online counseling: A handbook for mental health professionals (pp. 123-144). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
69.
Kraus, R., Zack, J., & Stricker, G. (Eds.). (2004). Online counseling: A handbook for mental health professionals. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
70.
Kraut, R., Mukhopadhyay, T., Szczypula, J., Kiesler, S., & Scherlis, B. (1999). Information and communication: Alternative uses of the Internet in households. Information Systems Research, 10, 287-303.
71.
Krupnick, J. L., Sotsky, S. M., Simmens, S., Moyer, J., Elkin, I., Watkins, J., et al. (1996). The role of the therapeutic alliances in psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy outcome: Findings in the National Institute of Mental Health treatment of depression collaborative research program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 532-539.
72.
Lamb, C. W. (1969). Telephone therapy: Some common errors and fallacies. Voices: The Art & Science of Psychotherapy, 5, 42-46.
73.
Lange, A., van de Ven, J., Schrieken, B., & Emmelkamp, P. M. G. (2001). Interapy. Treatment of post-traumatic stress through the Internet: A controlled trial. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 32, 73-90.
74.
Lee, C. C. (2000). Cybercounseling and empowerment: Bridging the digital divide. In J. W. Bloom & G. R. Walz (Eds.), Cybercounseling and cyberlearning: Strategies and resources for the millennium (pp. 85-93). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
75.
Lester, D. (1974). The unique qualities of telephone therapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 11, 219-221.
76.
Lester, D. (Ed.). (2002). Crisis intervention and counseling by telephone (2nd ed.). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
77.
Lichtenstein, E., Glasgow, R. E., Lando, H. A., Ossip-Klein, D. J., & Boles, S. M. (1996). Telephone counseling for smoking cessation: Rationales and meta-analytic review of evidence. Health Education Research, 11, 243-257.
78.
Liss, H. J., Glueckauf, R. L., & Ecklund-Johnson, E. P. (2002). Research on telehealth and chronic medical conditions: Critical review, key issues, and future directions. Rehabilitation Psychology, 47, 8-30.
79.
Lovell, K., Fullalove, L., Garvey, R., & Brooker, C. (2000). Telephone treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behavioural & Cognitive Psychotherapy, 28, 87-91.
80.
Magaletta, P. R., Fagan, T. J., & Peyrot, M. F. (2000). Telehealth in the Federal Bureau of Prisons: Inmates’ perceptions. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31, 497-502.
81.
Mallen, M. J. (2004). Online counseling research. In R. Kraus, J. Zack, & G. Stricker (Eds.), Online counseling: A handbook for mental health professionals (pp. 69-89). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
82.
Mallen, M. J., Day, S. X., & Green, M. A. (2003). Online versus face-to-face conversations: An examination of relational and discourse variables. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 40, 155-163.
83.
Mallen, M. J., & Vogel, D. L. (2002, August). Working toward online counselor training: Dynamics of process and assessment. In A. B. Rochlen (Chair), Appeal and relative efficacy of online counseling: Preliminary findings. Symposium conducted at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Chicago.
84.
Mallen, M. J., & Vogel, D. L. (2005). Introduction to the major contribution: Counseling psychology and online counseling. The Counseling Psychologist, 33, 761-775.
85.
Mallen, M. J., Vogel, D. L., & Rochlen, A. B. (2005). The practical aspects of online counseling: Ethics, training, technology, and competency. The Counseling Psychologist, 33, 776-818.
86.
Manhal-Baugus, M. (2001). E-therapy: Practical, ethical, and legal issues. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 4, 551-563.
87.
Marmar, C. R., Horowitz, M. J., Weiss, D. S., & Marziali, E. (1986). The development of the Therapeutic Alliance Rating System. In L. S. Greenberg & W. M. Pinsof (Eds.), The psychotherapeutic process: A research handbook (pp. 367-390). New York: Guilford.
88.
Matsuoka, J. K., Breaux, C., & Ryujin, D. H. (1997). National utilization of mental health services by Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders. Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 141-145.
89.
Meier, A. (2000). Offering social support via the Internet: A case study of an online support group for social workers. Journal of Technology in Human Services, 17, 237-266.
90.
Mermelstein, R., Hedeker, D., & Wong, S. (2003). Extended telephone counseling for smoking cessation: Does content matter?Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 565-574.
91.
Míguez, M. A., Vázquez, F. L., & Becoña, E. (2002). Effectiveness of telephone contact as an adjunct to a self-help program for smoking cessation: A randomized controlled trial in Spanish smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 27, 139-144.
92.
Mintz, J., & Kiesler, D. J. (1982). Individualized measures of psychotherapy outcome. In P. C. Kendall & J. N. Butcher (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in clinical psychology (pp. 429-460). New York: John Wiley.
93.
Murphy, C., Coover, D., & Owen, S. (1989). Development and validation of the computer self-efficacy scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 49, 893-899.
94.
Murphy, L. J., & Mitchell, D. L. (1998). When writing helps to heal: E-mail as therapy. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 26, 21-32.
95.
Myers, J. (1992). Wellness, prevention, development: The cornerstone of the profession. Journal of Counseling & Development, 71, 136-139.
96.
Norcross, J. C., Hedges, M., & Prochaska, J. O. (2002). The face of 2010: A delphi poll on the future of psychotherapy. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 3, 316-322.
97.
Olaniran, B. A. (1996). A model of group satisfaction in computer-mediated communication and face-to-face meetings. Behaviour & Information Technology, 15, 24-36.
98.
Osipow, S. H., & Spokane, A. R. (1987). Occupational Stress Inventory manual: Research edition. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
99.
O’Sullivan, M. J., Peterson, P. D., Cox, G. B., & Kirkeby, J. (1989). Ethnic populations: Community mental health services ten years later. American Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 17-30.
100.
Pearson, Q. M. (2003). Breaking the silence in the counselor education classroom: A training seminar on counseling sexual minority clients. Journal of Counseling & Development, 81, 292-300.
101.
Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Writing about emotional experiencesas a therapeutic process. Psychological Science, 8, 162-166.
102.
Pomerantz, J. M. (2002). Clinical responsibility and e-therapy. DrugBenefit Trends, 14, 29-30.
103.
Potosky, D., & Bobko, P. (1998). The computer understanding and experience scale: A self-report measure of computer experience. Computers in Human Behavior, 14, 337-348.
104.
Radloff, L. A. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A new self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401.
105.
Ranan, W., & Blodgett, A. (1983). Using telephone therapy for “unreachable” clients. Social Casework, 64, 39-44.
106.
Reese, R. J., Conoley, C. W., & Brossart, D. F. (2002). Effectiveness of telephone counseling: A field-based investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 233-242.
107.
Reips, U. (2002). Internet-based psychological experimenting: Five dos and five don’ts. Social Science Computer Review, 20, 241-249.
108.
Robbins, S. B. (1992). The working alliance. In M. Patton & N. Meara (Eds.), Psychoanalytic counseling (pp. 97-121). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
109.
Rochlen, A. B., Beretvas, S. N., & Zack, J. S. (2004). The on-line and face-to-face counseling attitude scales: A validation study. Journal of Measurement and Counseling and Development, 37, 95-111.
110.
Rochlen, A. B., Land, L. N., & Wong, Y. J. (2004). Male restrictive emotionality and evaluations of online versus face-to-face counseling. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5, 190-200.
111.
Rochlen, A. B., Zack, J. S., & Speyer, W. (2004). Online therapy: Review of relevant definitions, debates, and current empirical support. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 269-283.
112.
Rosenblum, L. (1969). Telephone therapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 6, 241-242.
113.
Rosenfield, M., & Smillie, E. (1998). Group counselling by telephone. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 26, 11-19.
114.
Russell, D., Cutrona, C. E., Rose, J., & Yurko, K. (1984). Social and emotional loneliness: An examination of Weiss’s typology of loneliness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1313-1321.
115.
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Cutrona, C. E. (1980). The revised UCLA loneliness scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 472-480.
116.
Sander, F. M. (1996). Couple group therapy conducted via computer-mediated communication: A preliminary case study. Computers in Human Behavior, 12, 301-312.
117.
Sangha, K. K., Dircks, A., & Langlois, S. (2003) Assessment of the effectiveness of genetic counseling by telephone compared to a clinic visit. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 12, 171-184.
118.
Schopp, L., Johnstone, B., & Merrell, D. (2000). Telehealth and neuropsychological assessment: New opportunities for psychologists. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31, 179-183.
119.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1995). The effectiveness of psychotherapy: The Consumer Reports study. American Psychologist, 50, 965-974.
120.
Sharf, B. (1997). Communication breast cancer online: Support and empowerment on the Internet. Women and Health, 26, 65-84.
121.
Shepard, P. (1987). Telephone therapy: An alternative to isolation. Clinical Social Work Journal, 15, 56-65.
122.
Shernoff, M. (2000). Cyber counseling for queer clients and clinicians. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 11, 105-112.
123.
Smith, B., Caputi, P., Crittenden, N., Jayasuriya, R., & Rawstone, P. (1999). A review of the construct of computer experience. Computers in Human Behavior, 15, 227-242.
124.
Smith, M. A., & Leigh, B. (1997). Virtual subjects: Using the Internet as an alternative source of subjects and research environment. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 29, 496-505.
125.
Smith, P. M., Reilly, K. R., Miller, N. H., DeBusk, R. F., & Taylor, C. B. (2002). Application of a nurse-managed inpatient smoking cessation program. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 4, 211-222.
126.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. (1970). State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
127.
Spiro, R. H., & Devenis, L. (1991). Telephone therapy: Enhancement of the psychotherapeutic process. Psychotherapy in Private Practice, 9, 31-55.
128.
Stamm, B. H. (1998). Clinical applications of telehealth in mental health care. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 29, 536-542.
129.
Stevens, A., Doidge, N., Goldbloom, D., Voore, P., & Farewell, J. (1999). Pilot study of televideo psychiatric assessments in an underserved community. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 783-785.
130.
Stiles, W. B., & Snow, J. S. (1984). Counseling session impact as viewed by novice counselors and their clients. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31, 3-12.
131.
Stofle, G. S. (2001). Choosing an online therapist. Harrisburg, PA: White Hat Communications.
132.
Sue, S., Fujino, D. C., Hu, L., Takeuchi, D. T., & Zane, N. (1991). Community mental health services for ethnic minority groups: A test of the cultural responsiveness hypothesis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 533-540.
133.
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1999). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley.
134.
Suler, J. (2000). Psychotherapy in cyberspace: A 5-dimensional model of online and computer-mediated psychotherapy. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 3, 151-160.
135.
Suler, J. (2001). Assessing a person’s suitability for online therapy: The ISMHO clinical case study group. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 4, 675-679.
136.
Tracey, T. J., & Dundon, M. (1988). Role anticipations and preferences over the course of counseling: An interactional examination. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31, 13-27.
137.
Tracey, T., Leong, F. T. L., & Glidden, C. (1986). Help seeking and problem perception among Asian Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33, 331-336.
138.
Utsey, S. O., Bolden, M. A., & Brown, A. L. (2001). Visions of revolution from the spirit of Frantz Fanon: A psychology of liberation from counseling African Americans confronting societal racism and oppression. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed., pp. 311-336). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
139.
VandenBos, G. R., & Williams, S. (2000). The Internet versus the telephone: What is telehealth, anyway?Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31, 490-492.
140.
Vera, E. M., & Reese, L. E. (2000). Preventive interventions with school-age youth. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology (3rd ed., pp. 411-434). New York: John Wiley.
141.
Vontress, C. E., & Epp, L. R. (1997). Historical hostility in the African American client: Implications for counseling. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 25, 170-184.
142.
Wald, F. D., & Mellenbergh, G. J. (1990). The short version of the Dutch translation of the Profile of Mood States. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie, 45, 85-90.
143.
Walther, J. B. (1993). Impression development in computer-mediated interaction. Western Journal of Communication, 57, 381-398.
144.
Walther, J. B. (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and hyperpersonal interaction. Communication Research, 23, 3-43.
145.
Walther, J. B., & D’Addario, K. P. (2001). The impacts of emoticonson message interpretationin computer-mediated communication. Social Science Computer Review, 19, 324-347.
146.
Wampold, B. E. (2000). Outcomes of individual counseling and psychotherapy: Empirical evidence addressing two fundamental questions. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology (3rd ed., pp. 711-739). New York: John Wiley.
147.
Weizenbaum, J. (1976). Computer power and human reason. New York: Freeman.
148.
Williams, T. (1971). Telephone therapy: The faceless therapist. Crisis Intervention, 3, 39-42.
149.
Winzelberg, A. (1997). The analysis of an electronic support group for individuals with eating disorders. Computers in Human Behavior, 13, 393-407.
150.
Wright, J., & Chung, M. C. (2001). Mastery or mystery? Therapeutic writing: A review of the literature. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 29, 277-291.
151.
Yager, J. (2001). E-mail as a therapeutic adjunct in the outpatient treatment of anorexia nervosa: Illustrative case material and discussion of the issues. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29, 125-138.
152.
Young, K. S. (1996). Psychology of computer use: XL. Addictive use of the Internet: A case that breaks the stereotype. Psychological Reports, 79, 899-902.
153.
Young, K. S., & Rogers, R. C. (1998). The relationship between depression and Internet addiction. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 1, 25-28.
154.
Zelvin, E., & Speyer, C. M. (2004). Online counseling skills, part I: Treatment strategies and skills for conducting counseling online. In R. Kraus, J. Zack, & G. Stricker (Eds.), Online counseling: A handbook for mental health professionals (pp. 163-180). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
155.
Zhu, S., Tedeschi, G., Anderson, C. M., Rosbrook, B., Byrd, M., Johnson, C. E., et al. (2000). Telephone counseling as adjuvant treatment for nicotine replacement therapy in a “real-world” setting. Preventive Medicine, 31, 357-363.
