This article proposes a strength-based model for counseling at-risk youth. The author presents the assumptions, basic concepts, and values of the strength perspective in counseling and offers strength categories as a conceptual model for viewing clients’ behavior. Propositions leading toward a theory of strength-based counseling and stages of this model are given, representative strength-based counseling techniques are examined, and a case study is used to illustrate risk factors, protective factors, and strength assessment. Ethical, research, and training implications of the strength-based model of counseling are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adler, A. (1931). What life should mean to you. New York: Putnam.
2.
Affleck, G., & Tennen, H. (1996). Construing benefits from adversity: Adaptational significance and dispositional underpinnings. Journal of Personality, 64, 899-922.
3.
Albee, G. W. (1994). The sins of the fathers: Sexism, racism and ethnocentrism in psychology. International Psychologist, 35, 22-26.
4.
American Psychological Association. (2003a). Guidelines on multicultural education, training, research, practice, and organizational change for psychologists. American Psychologist, 58, 377-402.
5.
American Psychological Association. (2003b). APA ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Washington, DC: Author.
6.
Aspinwall, L. G. (2001). Dealing with adversity: Self-regulation, coping, adaptation, and health. In A. Teaser & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology: Intraindividual processes (pp. 591-614). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
7.
Aspinwall, L. G., & Staudinger, U. M. (2003). A psychology of human strengths: Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
8.
Baines, D. (2000). Everyday practices of race, class, and gender: Struggles, skills, and radical social work. Journal of Progressive Human Services, 11, 5-7.
9.
Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., & Staudinger, U. M. (1998). Life-span theory in developmental psychology. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 1029-1143). New York: John Wiley.
10.
Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (2000). Wisdom: A metaheuristic, pragmatic to orchestrate mind and virtue towards excellence. American Psychologist, 55, 122-136.
11.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.
12.
Baumeister, F. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-539.
13.
Baumrind, D. (1995). Child maltreatment and optimal caregiving in social contexts. New York: Garland.
14.
Beck, A., Rush, J., Shaw, B., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy. New York: Guilford.
15.
Ben-Ari, A. (1995). Coming out: A dialectic of intimacy and privacy. Families in Society, 76, 306-314.
16.
Benard, B. (1991). Fostering resiliency in kids: Protective factors in the family, school, and community. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development. (Eric Document Reproduction Service No. ED335781)
17.
Benson, P. L. (1997). All kids are our kids. What communities must do to raise caring and responsible children and adolescents. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
18.
Benson, P. L., Galbraith, J., & Espeland, P. (1995). What kids need to succeed: Practical ways to raise good kids. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit.
19.
Berg, I. K. (1994). Family-based services: A solution-focused approach. New York: Norton.
20.
Berg, I., & De Jong, P. (1996). Solution-building conversations: Co-constructing a sense of competence with clients. Families in Society, 77, 376-391.
21.
Betancourt, H., & Lopez, S. R. (1993). The study of culture, ethnicity, race in American psychology. American Psychologist, 48, 629-637.
22.
Bingham, R. P., & Saponaro, L. (2003, August). Social change for 2025 and the role of counseling psychology. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
23.
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371-399.
24.
Bradley, R. H., Corwyn, R. F., McAdoo, H., & Coll, C. (2001). The home environments of children in the United States: Part I. Variations by age, ethnicity, and poverty status. Child Development, 72, 1844-1867.
25.
Brady, M. J., Peterman, A. H., Fitchett, G., Mo, M., & Cella, D. (1999). A case for including spirituality in quality of life measurement in oncology. Psycho-Oncology, 8, 417-428.
26.
Bretton, M. (1993). Relating competence-promotion and empowerment. Journal of Progressive Human Services, 5, 27-44.
27.
Brody, G. H., Ge, X., Conger, R. D., Gibbons, F., Murry, V., Gerrard, M., et al. (2001). The influence of neighborhood disadvantage, collective socialization, and parenting on African American children’s affiliation with deviant peers. Child Development, 72, 1231-1246.
28.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). A report on longitudinal evaluations of preschool programs, Vol. II: Is early intervention effective?Washington, DC: Office of Development, Department of Health, Education and Welfare. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED093501)
29.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
30.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. Annals of Child Development, 6, 185-246.
31.
Brower, A. M. (1996). Group development as constructed social reality revisited: The constructivism of small groups. Families in Society, 77, 336-343.
32.
Brown, R. P. (2004). Vengeance is mine: Narcissism, vengeance, and the tendency to forgive. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 576-584.
33.
Brown, R. P., & Phillips, A. (2005). Letting bygones be bygones: Further evidence for the validity of the Tendency to Forgive scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 627-638.
34.
Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (2000). Handbook of counseling psychology. New York: John Wiley.
35.
Bureau of the Census. (1997). Current population reports: Poverty in the United States 1995. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce.
36.
Bureau of the Census. (2001). Current population reports: Poverty in the United States 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce.
37.
Burt, M. R., Resnick, G., & Novick, E. R. (1998). Building supportive communities for at-risk adolescents. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
38.
Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1995). Great transitions: Preparing adolescents for a new century. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York.
39.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Principles of self-regulation: Action and emotion. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Vol. 2 (pp. 3-52). New York: Guilford.
40.
Chang, E. C. (2001). Cultural influences on optimism and pessimism: Differences in Western and Eastern conceptualizations of the self. In E. C. Chang (Ed.), Optimism and pessimism: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 257-280). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
41.
Children’s Defense Fund. (2001). The state of America’s children: Yearbook 2001. Washington, DC: Author.
42.
Clark, M. D. (1999). Strength-based practice: The ABC’s of working with adolescents who don’t want to work with you. Retrieved February 28, 2001 from http://www.drugs.indiana.edu/prevention/assets/asset2.html
43.
Cohen, B. (1999). Intervention and supervision in strengths-based social work practice. Families in Society, 80, 460-466.
44.
Cohler, B. J. (1987). Adversity, resilience, and the study of lives. In E. J. Anthony & B. J. Cohler (Eds.), The invulnerable child (pp. 363-424). New York: Guilford.
45.
Comer, J. P. (Ed.). (1996). Rallying the whole village: The Comer process for reforming education. New York: Teachers College Press.
46.
Connell, J. P., Spencer, M. B., & Aber, J. L. (1994). Educational risk and resilience in African-American youth: Context, self, action, and outcomes in school. Child Development, 65, 494-506.
47.
Constantine, N., Benard, B., & Diaz, M. (1999). Measuring protective factors and resilience traits in youth: The Healthy Kids Resilience Assessment. Paper presented at the Seventh Annual Meeting of the Society for Prevention Research, New Orleans, LA.
48.
Cook, J., & Brown, L. (1993). Two Americas: Alternative future for child poverty in America. Medford, MA: Tufts University Center on Hunger, Poverty and Nutrition.
49.
Cook, J., & Laub, J. H. (1998). The unprecedented epidemic in youth violence. In M. Tonry & M. H. Moore (Eds.), Crime and justice: A review of research (pp. 34-51). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
50.
Corsini, R. J. (Ed.). (2001). Five therapists and one client. Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock.
51.
Corsini, R. J., & Wedding, D. (2005). Current psychotherapies (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
52.
Cowan, P., Cowan, C. P., & Schultz, M. (1996). Thinking about risk and resilience in families. In E. M. Hetherington& E. Blechman(Eds.), Stress, coping and resilience in children and families (pp. 155-172). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
53.
Cowger, C. D. (1992). Assessment of client strengths: Clinical assessment for empowerment. Social Work, 39, 262-268.
54.
Cross, W. (1971). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience. Black Worlds, 20, 13-17.
55.
Cross, W. (1991). Shades of Black. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
56.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Rochberg-Halton, E. (1981). The meaning of things: Domestic symbols and the self. New York: Cambridge University Press.
57.
Dana, G. (2002). Friends of the children. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 10, 209-212.
58.
Darwin, C. (1995). The origin of species. New York: Gramercy. (Originalworkpublished1859)
59.
Davis, C. G., Nolen-Hoeksma, S., & Larson, J. (1998). Making sense of loss and benefiting from the experience: Two construals of meaning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 561-574.
60.
Davis, N. J. (1998). Youth crisis: Growing up in the high-risk society. New York: Greenwood.
61.
De Jong, P., & Berg, I. K. (2002). Interviewing for solutions (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
62.
De Jong, P., & Miller, S. D. (1995). Interviewing for client strengths. Social Work, 40, 729-736.
63.
de Shazer, S. (1985). Keys to solution in brief therapy. New York: Norton.
64.
de Shazer, S. (1988). Clues: Investigating solutions in brief therapy. New York: Norton.
65.
de Shazer, S. (1994). Words were originally magic. New York: Norton.
66.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268.
67.
Denti, L., & Guerin, G. (1999). Issues in alternative education. Clearinghouse, 73219-234.
68.
Desetta, A., & Wolin, S. (2000). The struggle to be strong: True stories by teens about overcoming tough times. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Press.
69.
Dinkmeyer, D., & Losoncy, L. (1996). The skills of encouragement. Delray Beach, FL: St. Lucie Press.
70.
Dreikurs, R. (1971). Social equality. Chicago: Alfred Adler Institute.
71.
Druian, G., & Butler, J. (1987). Effective schooling practices and at-risk youth: What the research says. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.
72.
Dryfoos, J. G. (1990). Adolescents at risk: Prevalence and prevention. New York: Oxford University Press.
73.
Dryfoos, J. G. (1997). The prevalence of problem behaviors: Implications for programs. In R. P. Weissberg, T. P. Gullotta, R. L. Hamilton, B. A. Ryan, & G. R. Adams (Eds.), Healthy children 2010: Enhancing children’s wellness (pp. 17-46). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
74.
Dunst, C. A., Trivette, C., & Deal, A. (1988). Enabling and empowering families. Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
75.
Durrant, M., & Kowalski, K. (1992). Enhancing views of competence. In S. Friedman (Ed.), The new language of change (pp. 107-137). New York: Guilford.
76.
Dyche, I., & Zayas, L. (1995). The value of curiosity and naiveté for the cross-cultural psychotherapist. Family Process, 343, 879-899.
77.
Edmonds, R. (1979). Effective schools for the urban poor. Educational Leadership, 37, 15-24.
78.
Eggebeen, D. J., & Lichter, D. T. (1991). Race, family structure, and changing poverty among American children. American Sociological Review, 56, 801-817.
79.
Emery, R. E., & Laumann-Billings, L. (1998). An overview of the nature, causes, and consequences of abusive family relationships. American Psychologist, 53, 121-135.
80.
Epstein, M. J. (1998). Assessing the emotional and behavioral strengths of children. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 6, 250-252.
81.
Epstein, M. J., & Sharma, J. (1998). Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale: A strength-based approach to assessment. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
82.
Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of poverty. American Psychologist, 59, 77-92.
83.
Evans, T. (1996). Encouragement: the key to reforming classrooms. Educational Leadership, 54, 81-85.
84.
Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man’s search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy. New York: Washington Square.
85.
Frederic, S., & Lowenstein, G. (1999). Hedonic adaptation. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 302-329). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
86.
Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions?Review of General Psychology, 2, 300-319.
87.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html
88.
Freeman, B. (1995). Peer motivation and youth: An analysis of troubled students and student leaders. Journal of Counseling & Development, 73, 661-671.
89.
Friedman, S. (Ed.). (1992). The new language of change. New York: Guilford.
90.
Garbarino, J. (1991). The human ecology in early risk. In S. J. Meisels & J. Shankoff (Eds.), Handbook of early child intervention (pp. 78-96). New York: Cambridge University Press.
91.
Garbarino, J. (1994). Raising children in a socially toxic environment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
92.
Garmezy, N. (1987). Stress, competence, and development: Continuities in the study of schizophrenic adults, children vulnerable to psychopathology, and the search for stress-resistant children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 159-174.
93.
Garmezy, N. (1993). Children in poverty: Resilience despite risk. Psychiatry, 56, 127-136.
94.
Gelso, C. G., & Fretz, B. R. (1992). Counseling psychology. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
95.
Gelso, C. G., & Woodhouse, S. (2004). Toward a positive psychology: Focus on human strength. In W. B. Walsh (Ed.), Counseling psychology and human strengths (pp. 344-369). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.
96.
Gerber, P. J., Ginsberg, R. J., & Reiff, H. B. (1990). Identifying alterable patterns in employment success for highly successful adults with learning disabilities (Final Report H133G80500). Washington, DC: National Institute on Disability Research and Rehabilitation, Department of Education.
97.
Gillham, J. E., & Seligman, M. E. (1999). Footsteps on the road to positive psychology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, S163-S173.
98.
Goldstein, H. (1990). Strength or pathology: Ethical and rhetorical contrasts in approaches to practice. Families in Society, 71, 267-275.
99.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.
100.
Goodman, R. (1999). The extended version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire as a guide to child psychiatric caseness and consequent burden. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40, 791-799.
101.
Goolishian, H. (1990). Family therapy: An evolving story. Contemporary Family Therapy, 12, 173-180.
102.
Greenstein, M., & Breitbart, W. (2000). Cancer and the experience of meaning: A group psychotherapy program for people with cancer. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 54, 486-500.
103.
Haggerty, R. J., Sherrod, L. R., Garmezy, N., & Rutter, M. (Eds.). (1994). Stress, risk, resilience in children and adolescents: Processes, mechanisms, and interventionism. New York: Cambridge University Press.
104.
Hall, G. S. (1922). Senescence: The last half of life. New York: Appleton.
105.
Hamburg, M. A. (1998). Youth violence is a public health concern. In D. S. Elliott, B. A. Hamburg, & K. R. Williams (Eds.), Violence in American schools: A new perspective (pp. 31-54). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
106.
Hamilton, S. F. (1986). Raising standards and reducing the dropout rate. Teachers College Record, 87, 410-429.
107.
Herrenkohl, T. L., Maguin, E., Hill, K. G., Hawkins, J. D., Abbott, R. D., & Catalano, R. F. (2000). Developmental risk factors for youth violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26, 176-186.
108.
Hewlett, S. A. (1991). When the bough breaks: The cost of neglecting our children. New York: HarperCollins.
109.
Holeman, V. T. (2004). Reconcilable differences: Hope and healing for troubled marriages. Downers Grove, IL: Inter Varsity Press.
110.
Husted, T. A., & Cavalluzzo, L. C. (2001). An Overview of at-risk high school students and education programs designed to meet their needs. Alexandria, VA. Illinois Center for Violence Prevention.
111.
Isen, A. M. (2002). A role for neuropsychology in understanding the facilitating influence of positive affect on social behavior and cognitive processes. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 528-540). New York: Oxford University Press.
112.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: Toward a new psychology of trauma. New York: Free Press.
113.
Johnson, M. K., & Friedman, R.M. (1991). Strength-based assessment. Program Update, 7, 10-11.
114.
Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169-182.
115.
Katz, M. (1997). On playing a poor hand well. New York: Norton.
116.
Kersting, K. (2003, September). Lessons in resilience. APA Monitor on Psychology, 32(8), 30-31. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/sep03/lessons.html
117.
Klein, D. C., & Goldston, S. E. (1977). Primary prevention: An idea whose time has come. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. (DHEW Publication No. ADM 77-447)
118.
Korpela, K., & Hartig, T. (1996). Restorative qualities of favorite places. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 16, 221-233.
119.
Kozol, J. (1998). Amazing grace: The lives of children and the conscience of a nation. New York: HarperCollins.
120.
Kretzmann, J., & McKnight, J. (1993). Building communities from the inside-out. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University, Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research.
121.
Larson, R. W. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. American Psychologist, 55, 30-37.
122.
Lee, J. A. B. (Ed.). (2001). The empowerment approach to social work practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
123.
Leong, F. T. L., & Blustein, D. (2000). Toward a global vision of counseling psychology. The Counseling Psychologist, 28, 5-9.
124.
Levy, D. T., Stewart, K., & Wilbur, P. (1999). Costs of underage drinking. Calverton, MD: Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation.
125.
Lopez, S. J. (2004, October). Positive psychology. Society of Counseling Psychology Newsletter, XXXVI, 5.
126.
Lopez, S. J., & Snyder, C. R. (Eds.). (2004). Positive psychological assessment: A handbook of models and measures. New York: Oxford University Press.
127.
Luthar, S. (1991). Vulnerability and resilience: A study of high risk adolescents. Child Development, 62, 600-616.
128.
Lyons, J. S., Uziel-Miller, N. D., Reyes, F., & Sokol, P. T. (2000). Strengths of children and adolescents in residential settings: Prevalence and associations with psychopathology and discharge placement. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 176-181.
129.
Maluccio, A. N. (1981). Competence-oriented social work practice: An ecological practice. In A. N. Maluccio (Ed.), Promoting competence in clients: A new/old approach to social work practice (pp. 1-24). New York: Free Press.
130.
Martin, S. (2002, December). Building resilience from the grassroots up. APA Monitor on Psychology, 33(11), 52.
131.
Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row.
132.
Maslow, A. (1962). Toward a psychology of being. New York: Van Nostrand.
133.
Maslow, A. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: Penguin.
134.
Masten, A. (1994). Resilience in individual development: Successful adaptation despite risk and adversity. In M. Wang & E. Gordon (Eds.), Educational resilience in inner-city America (pp. 3-25). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
135.
Masten, A., & Coatsworth, J. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205-220.
136.
Masten, A., & Reed, M. (2002). Resilience in development. In C. Snyder & S. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 74-88). New York: Oxford University Press.
137.
Maton, K. I., Schellenback, C. J., Leadbetter, B. J., & Solarz, A. L. (Eds.). (2004). Investing in children, youth, families, and communities: Strengths-based research and policy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
138.
McCubbin, H. I., McCubbin, M. A., & Thompson, A. I. (1993). Resiliency in families: The role of family schema and appraisal in family adaptation to crisis. In T. T. H. Brubaker (Ed.), Family relations: Challenges for the future. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
139.
McIntosh, D. N., Silver, R., & Wortman, C. B. (1993). Religion’s role in adjustment to a negative life event: Coping with the loss of a child. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 812-821.
140.
McQuaide, S., & Ehrenreich, J. H. (1997). Assessing client strengths. Families in Society, 78, 201-202.
141.
McWhirter, J. J., McWhirter, B. T., McWhirter, A. M., & McWhirter, E. H. (1998). At-risk youth: A comprehensive response (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
142.
Meara, N., & Myers, R. A. (1999). A history of Division 17 (Counseling Psychology): Establishing stability amid change. In D. A. Dewsbury (Ed.), Unification through division: Histories of the divisions of the American Psychological Association (pp. 3, 9-42). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
143.
Miller, D. B. (1999). Racial socialization and racial identity: Can they promote resiliency for African American adolescents?Adolescence, 34, 493-501.
144.
Mitchell, J. J. (1996). Adolescent vulnerability: A sympathetic look at the frailties and limitations of youth. Calgary, Alberta, Canada: Detselig Enterprises.
145.
Murray, B. (2003, October). Rebounding from losses. APA Monitor on Psychology, 34(10), 42-43. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct03/rebounding.html
146.
National Commission on Children. (1991). Speaking of kids: A national survey of children and parents. Washington, DC: Author.
147.
Norman, E. (2000). The strengths perspective and resiliency enhancement: A nature partnership. In E. Norman (Ed.), Resiliency enhancement: Putting the strengths perspective into social work practice (pp. 1-16). New York: Columbia University Press.
148.
Padilla, A. M., Cervantes, R. C., Maldonado, M., & Garcia, R. E. (1988). Coping responses to psychological stressors among Mexican and Central American immigrants. Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 418-427.
149.
Parham, T. A., & Helms, J. E. (1981). The influence of black students’ racial identity attitudes to black students’ mental health. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 250-257.
150.
Pedersen, P. (1979). Non-western psychologies: The search for alternatives. In A. Marsella, R. Tharp, & T. Ciborowski (Eds.), Perspectives in cross-cultural psychology. New York: Academic Press.
151.
Pedersen, P. (Ed.). (1985). Handbook of cross-cultural counseling and therapy. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
152.
Peterson, C. (2000). The future of optimism. American Psychologist, 55, 79-88.
153.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2003). Values in Action (VIA) classification of strengths manual. Retrieved from http://www.positivepsychology.org/taxonomy.htm
154.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
155.
Pines, M. (1984). Resilient children: The search for protective factors. American Educator, 8, 34-37.
156.
Ponterotto, J. G., & Casas, J. M. (1991). Handbook of racial/ethnic minority counseling research. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
157.
Price, R. H., Cowen, E. L., Lorion, R. P., & Ramos-McKay, J. (Eds.). (1988). 14 ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
158.
Proshansky, H. M., Fabian, A. K., & Kaminoff, R. (1983). Place identity: Physical world socialization of the self. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 3, 57-83.
159.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon & Schuster.
160.
Rak, C. F., & Patterson, L. E. (1996). Promoting resilience in at-risk children. Journal of Counseling and Development, 74, 368-373.
161.
Rapp, C. A. (1998). The strengths model: Case management with people suffering from severe and persistent mental illness. New York: Oxford University Press.
162.
Rappaport, J. (1990). Research methods and the empowerment social agenda. In P. Tolan, C. Keys, F. Chertak, & L. Jason (Eds.), Researching community psychology (pp. 51-63). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
163.
Resnick, M. D., Harris, L. J., & Blum, R. W. (1993). The impact of caring and connectedness on adolescent health and well being. Journal of Pediatrics and Child Health, 29, 83-89.
164.
Rhodes, W., & Brown, W. (1991). Why some children succeed despite the odds. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
165.
Riegel, K. F. (1976). The dialectics of human development. American Psychologist, 31, 689-700.
166.
Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
167.
Rogers, C. (1964). The concept of the fully functioning person. Psychotherapy Theory, Research and Practice, 1, 17-26.
168.
Ruiz, R. A., & Padilla, A. M. (1977). Counseling Latinos. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 55, 401-408.
169.
Rutter, M. (1985a). Family and school influences on cognitive development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26, 683-704.
170.
Rutter, M. (1985b). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598-611.
171.
Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316-333.
172.
Rutter, M. (1993). Resilience: Some conceptual considerations. Journal of Adolescent Health, 14, 626-631.
173.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
174.
Saleebey, D. (1992). The strengths perspective in social work practice. New York: Longman.
175.
Saleebey, D. (1996). The strengths perspective in social work practice: Extensions and cautions. Social Work, 41, 296-305.
176.
Saleebey, D. (2001). The diagnostic strengths manual. Social Work, 46, 183-187.
177.
Sampson, R., Raudenbush, S., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918-924.
178.
Sarbin, T. R. (1970). The culture of poverty, social identity, and cognitive outcomes. In V. L. Allen (Ed.), Psychological factors in poverty (pp. 29-47). Chicago: Markham.
179.
Savickas, M. (2004). Toward a taxonomy of human strengths. In W. B. Walsh (Ed.), Counseling psychology and optimal human functioning (pp. 141-155). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
180.
Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1985). Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219-247.
181.
Schumm, W. R. (1985). Beyond relationship characteristics of strong families: Constructing a model of family strengths. Family Perspective, 19, 1-19.
182.
Selekman, M. D. (1997). Solution-focused therapy with children: Harnessing family strengths for systemic change. New York: Guilford.
183.
Seligman, M. E. (1991). Learned optimism. New York: Knopf.
184.
Seligman, M. E. (1998, July-August). The president’s address. American Psychologist, 54, 559-562.
185.
Seligman, M. E. (1999, July-August). Teaching positive psychology. APA Monitor on Psychology, 30(7). Available from www.apa.org
186.
Seligman, M. E. (2002). Authentic happiness. New York: Free Press.
187.
Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14.
188.
Seligman, M. E., Reivich, K., Jaycox, L., & Gillham, J. (1995). The optimistic child. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
189.
Seligman, M. E. P., Schulman, P., & DeRubeis, R. J. (1999). The prevention of depression and anxiety. Prevention & Treatment, 2, Article 0008a. Retrieved from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume2/pre0020008a.html
190.
Simon, B.L. (1990). Rethinking empowerment. Journal of Progressive Human Services, 1, 27-39.
191.
Simons, R. L., & Aigner, S. M. (1985). Practice principles: A problem solving approach to social work. New York: Macmillan.
192.
Sinclair, J., Pettit, G., Harrist, A., Dodge, K., & Bates, J. (1997). Consequences of living in poverty for young children’s cognitive and verbal ability and early school achievement. In G. J. Duncan & J. Brooks-Ginn (Eds.), Consequences of growing up poor (pp. 132-189). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
193.
Siporin, M. (1975). Introduction to social work practice. New York: Macmillan.
194.
Slavin, R. E., & Madden, N. E. (1989). What works for students at risk: A research synthesis. Educational Leadership, 46, 4-13.
195.
Smith, C., Lizotte, A. J., Thornberry, T. P., & Krohn, M. D. (1995). Resilient youth: Identifying factors that prevent high-risk youth from engaging in delinquency and drug use. In J. Hagan (Ed.), Delinquency and disrepute in the life course (pp. 217-247). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
196.
Smith, E. J. (1973). Counseling the culturally different Black youth. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
197.
Smith, E. J. (1977). Counseling Black individuals: Some stereotypes. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 55, 390-396.
198.
Smith, E. J. (1985a). Ethnic minorities: Life stress, social support, and mental health issues. The Counseling Psychologist, 13, 537-579.
199.
Smith, E. J. (1985b). Counseling Black women. In P. Pedersen (Ed.), Handbook of cross-cultural counseling and therapy (pp. 181-188). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
200.
Smith, E. J. (1989). Black racial identity development: Issues and concerns. The Counseling Psychologist, 17, 277-288.
201.
Smith, E. J. (1991). Ethnic identity development: Toward the development of a theory within the context of majority/minority status. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70, 181-188.
202.
Snyder, C. R. (Ed.). (2000). Handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and applications. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
203.
Snyder, C. R., Ilardi, S., Michael, S., & Cheavens, J. (2000). Hope theory: Updating a common process for psychological change. In C. R. Snyder & R. E. Ingram (Eds.), Handbook of psychological change: Psychotherapy processes and practices for the 21st century (pp. 128-153). New York: John Wiley.
204.
Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of positive psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.
205.
Snyder, C. R., McDermott, D., Cook, W., & Rapoff, M. A. (1997). Hope for the journey: Helping children through good times and bad. Boulder, CO: Westview.
206.
Staudinger, U. M. (2000). Social cognition and a psychological approach to an art of life. In F. Blanchard-Fields & T. Hess (Eds.), Social cognition, adult development and aging (pp. 343-375). New York: Academic Press.
207.
Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1996). Interactive minds: A facilitative setting for wisdom-related performance?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 746-762.
208.
Staudinger, U. M., Freund, A., Linden, M., & Maas, I. (1999). Self, personality, and life regulation: Facets of psychological resilience in old age. In P. B. Baltes & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Aging Study: Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. 302-328). New York: Cambridge University Press.
209.
Staudinger, U. M., Marsiske, M., & Baltes, P. B. (1995). Resilience and reserve capacity in later adulthood: Potentials and limits of development across the life span. In D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (pp. 801-847). New York: John Wiley.
210.
Staudinger, U. M., & Pasupathi, M. (2000). Lifespan perspectives on self, personality and social cognition. In T. Salthouse & F. Craik (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and aging (pp. 633-688). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
211.
Sternberg, R. J. (1998). A balance theory of wisdom. Review of General Psychology, 2, 347-365.
212.
Sue, D. W., Arrendondo, P., & McDavis, R. (1992). Multicultural counseling competencies and standards: A call to the profession. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70, 477-486.
213.
Thompson, S. C. (1985). Finding positive meaning in a stressful life event. Basic and Applied Psychology, 6, 279-295.
214.
Tuan, Y. F. (1974). Topophilia: A study of environmental perception, attitudes, and values. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
215.
U.S. Department of Education. (1994). National agenda for achieving better results for children and youth with serious emotional disturbance. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
216.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Mental health: A report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: Author.
217.
Ulrich, R. S. (1984). View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science, 224, 420-421.
218.
Vailant, G. (2000). The mature defenses: Antecedents of joy. American Psychologist, 55, 89-98.
219.
Wall, M. D., Kleckner, T., Amendt, J. H., & Bryant, R. D. (1989). Therapeutic compliments: Setting the stage for successful therapy. Journal of Marriage and Family Therapy, 15, 159-167.
220.
Walsh, F. (1998). Strengthening family resilience. New York: Guilford.
221.
Walsh, W. B. (2004). Counseling psychology and optimal human functioning. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.
222.
Walter, J. L., & Peller, J. E. (1992). Becoming solution-focused in brief therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
223.
Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1997). Fostering educational resilience in inner-city schools. In M. C. Wang, G. D. Haertel, & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Children and youth (pp. 119-140). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
224.
Watson, M., & Ecken, L. (2003). Learning to trust: Transforming difficult elementary classrooms through developmental discipline. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
225.
Watzlawick, P., Weakland, J., & Fisch, R. (1974). Change: Principles of problem formation and problem resolution. New York: Norton.
226.
Wehlage, G. G., & Rutter, R. A. (1986). Evaluation of model program for at-risk students. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
227.
Weick, A., & Chamberlain, R. (2002). Putting problems in their place: Further explorations in the strengths perspective. In D. Saleebey (Ed.), The strengths perspective in social work practice (3rd ed., pp. 95-105). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
228.
Weick, A., Rapp, C., Sullivan, W. P., & Kisthardt, S. (1989). A strengths perspective for social work practice. Social Work, 34, 350-354.
229.
Weissberg, R. P., Kumpfer, K. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2003). Special issue: Prevention that works for children and youth. American Psychologist, 58, 425-432.
230.
Weissberg, R. P., Walberg, H. J., O’Brien, M. U., & Kuster, C. B. (Eds.). (2003). Long-term trends in the well-being of children and youth. Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of American Press.
231.
Werner, E. E. (1995). Resilience in development: Current directions. Psychological Science, 4, 81-82.
232.
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York: McGraw-Hill.
233.
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
234.
White, M. (1989). The externalizing of the problem and the re-authoring of lives and relationhips. In M. White (Ed.), Selected papers (pp.5-28). Adelaide, Australia: Dulwich Centre.
235.
White, M., & Epston, D. (1990). Narrative means to therapeutic ends. New York: Norton.
236.
Wolin, S. J., & Wolin, S. (1993). The resilient self: How survivors of troubled families rise above adversity. New York: Villard.
237.
Wrenn, C. G. (1962). The culturally encapsulated counselor. Harvard Educational Review, 32, 444-449.
238.
Yalom, I. (1995). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (4th ed.). New York: Basic Books.
