This address was presented at the 2001 Conference of the American Psychological Association in San Francisco. In this address, Professor Betz discusses how her experiences as a young girl interested in math and science both illustrate and led to the empirical and theoretical contributions she has made to the career development of women. The concepts of the null educational environment, Bandura’s self-efficacy theory, Holland’s theory of vocational personalities, and role models for women are among those integral to Betz’s own career development as well as to her research and writing. The importance of the concepts for other underrepresented groups, such as racial/ethnic minorities and lower socioeconomic status individuals, is also mentioned herein.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Anderson, S. , & Betz, N. (2001). Sources of social self-efficacy expectations: Their measurement and relation to career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58, 1-20.
2.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
3.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.
4.
Betz, N. E. (1978). Prevalence, distribution, and correlates of math anxiety in college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 25, 441-448.
5.
Betz, N. E. (1989). The null environment and women’s career development. The Counseling Psychologist, 17, 136-144.
6.
Betz, N. E. (1999). Getting clients to act on their interests: Self-efficacy expectations as a mediator of the implementation of vocational interests. In M. L. Savickas & A. R. Spokane (Eds.), Occupational interests: Their meaning, measurement, and use in counseling (pp. 327-344). Palo Alto: Davies Black.
7.
Betz, N. E. (2000). Self-efficacy theory as a basis for career assessment. Journal of Career Assessment, 8, 205-222.
8.
Betz, N. E. , & Borgen, F. H. (2000). Integrating vocational interests with self-efficacy and personal styles. Journal of Career Assessment, 8, 329-338.
9.
Betz, N. , Borgen, F., & Harmon, L. (1996). Skills Confidence Inventory applications and technical guide. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
10.
Betz, N. , Borgen, F., Kaplan, A., & Harmon, L. (1998). Gender as a moderator of the validity and interpretive utility of the Skills Confidence Inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 53, 1-19.
11.
Betz, N. E. , & Hackett, G. (1981). The relationship of career-related self-efficacy expectations to perceived career options in college women and men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 399-410.
12.
Betz, N. E. , & Hackett, G. (1983). The relationship of mathematics self-efficacy expectations to the selection of science-based college majors. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 23, 329-345.
13.
Betz, N. E. , & Hackett, G. (1997). Applications of self-efficacy theory to the career assessment of women. Journal of Career Assessment, 5, 383-402.
14.
Betz, N. , Harmon, L., & Borgen, F. (1996). The relationships of self-efficacy for the Holland themes to gender, occupational group membership, and vocational interests. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 90-98.
15.
Betz, N. E. , & Klein Voyten, K. (1997). Efficacy and outcome expectations influence career exploration and decidedness. Career Development Quarterly, 46, 179-189.
16.
Betz, N. , & Luzzo, D. (1996). Career assessment and the Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale. Journal of Career Assessment, 4, 313-328.
17.
Betz, N. , & Schifano, R. (2000). Increasing Realistic self-efficacy and interests in college women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56, 35-52.
18.
Brown, C. , Reedy, D., Fountain, J., Johnson, A., & Dichiser, T. (2000). Battered women’s career decision self-efficacy. Journal of Career Assessment, 8, 251-266.
19.
Campbell, D. P. (1995). The Campbell Interest and Skill Survey: A product of ninety years of psychometric evolution. Journal of Career Assessment, 3, 391-411.
20.
Campbell, D. P. , Hyne, S. A., & Nilsen, D. L. (1992). Manual for the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey. Minneapolis: National Computer Systems.
21.
Cousins, S. O. (1997). Elderly tomboys: Source of self-efficacy for physical activity in late life. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 5, 229-243.
22.
Donnay, D.A.C. , & Borgen, F. H. (1999). The incremental validity of vocational self-efficacy: An examination of interest, self-efficacy, and occupation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 432-447.
23.
Douce, L. A. , & Hansen, J. C. (1990). Willingness to take risks and college women’s career choice. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 36, 258-273.
24.
Farmer, H. S. (1976). What inhibits achievement and career motivation of women?The Counseling Psychologist, 6, 12-14.
25.
Fassinger, R. E. (in press). Leona Tyler: Pioneer of possibilities. In G. Kimble & M. Wertheimer (Eds.), Portraits of pioneers in psychology (Vol. V). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
26.
Flores, L. Y. , & O’Brien, K. M. (2002). The career development of Mexican-American adolescent women: A test of social cognitive career theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 14-27.
27.
Fouad, N. , & Smith, P. L. (1996). Test of a social-cognitive model for middle school students: Math and science. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 338-346.
28.
Freeman, J. (1979). How to discriminate against women without really trying. In J. Freeman (Ed.), Women: A feminist perspective (2nd ed., pp. 194-208). Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
29.
Gainor, K. A. , & Lent, R. W. (1998). Social cognitive expectations and racial identity attitudes in predicting the math choice intentions of Black college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 403-413.
30.
Gasser, C. E. , Paulsen, A. M., Thomas, T., Hofer, K. E., Betz, N. E., & Rottinghaus, M. A. (2001, August). Expanding the Skills Confidence Inventory with Basic Confidence Scales. Poster session presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco.
31.
Goodenough, F. L. , & Tyler, L. E. (1959). Developmental psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
32.
Gwilliam, L. , & Betz, N. (2001). Validity of measures of math- and science-related self-efficacy expectations among African-Americans and European-Americans. Journal of Career Assessment, 9, 261-281.
33.
Hackett, G. (1985). The role of mathematics self-efficacy in the choice of math-related majors of college women and men: A path model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32, 47-56.
34.
Hackett, G. , & Betz, N. E. (1981). A self-efficacy approach to the career development of women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 18, 326-339.
35.
Hackett, G. , & Byars, A. M. (1996). Social cognitive theory and the career development of African-American women. Career Development Quarterly, 44, 322-340.
36.
Halper, C. R. (2001). Development of the Basic Confidence Inventory and Basic Interest Inventory. Unpublished undergraduate honors thesis, Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus.
37.
Harmon, L. W. (1977). Career counseling for women. In E. Rawlings & D. Carter (Eds.), Psychotherapy for women (pp. 197-206). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
38.
Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
39.
Lackner, J. M. , Carosella, A. M., & Feuerstein, M. (1996). Pain expectancies, pain, and functional self-efficacy expectations as determinants of disability in patients with chronic low back disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 212-220.
40.
Lent, R. W. , Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122.
41.
Lent, R. W. , Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (2000). Contextual supports and barriers to career choice: A social cognitive analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 36-49.
42.
Lent, R. W. , Brown, S. D., & Larkin, K. C. (1984). Relation of self-efficacy expectations to academic achievement and persistence. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31, 356-362.
43.
Lent, R. W. , Brown, S. D., & Larkin, K. C. (1986). Self-efficacy in the prediction of academic success and perceived career options. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33, 265-269.
44.
Luzzo, D. A. , & Day, M. A. (1999). Effects of Strong Interest Inventory feedback on career decision-making self-efficacy and social cognitive career beliefs. Journal of Career Assessment, 7, 1-18.
45.
Luzzo, D. , Hasper, P., Albert, K., Bibby, M., & Martinelli, E. (1998). Effects of self-efficacy enhancing interventions on the math-science self-efficacy and career interests, goals, and actions of career undecided college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 233-243.
46.
Mendes de Leon, C. F. , Seeman, T. E., Baker, D. I., Richardson, E. D., & Tinetti, M. E. (1996). Self-efficacy, physical decline, and change in functioning in community-living elders: A prospective study. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 51B, 5183-5190.
47.
Mezydlo, L. , & Betz, N. E. (1980). Perceptions of ideal sex roles as a function of sex and feminist orientation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 27, 282-285.
48.
National Science Foundation . (1999). Women, minorities, and persons with disabilities in science and engineering. Arlington, VA: Author.
49.
Parsons, E. , & Betz, N. (1998). Test-retest reliability and validity studies of the Skills Confidence Inventory. Journal of Career Assessment, 6, 1-12.
50.
Paulsen, A. (2002). Construct validity of measures of career-related self-efficacy expectations. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus.
51.
Rounds, J. B. , & Tracey, T. J. (1990). From trait-and-factor to person-environment fit counseling: Theory and process. In W. B. Walsh & S. H. Oispow (Eds.), Career counseling (pp. 1-44). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
52.
Solberg, V. S. , & Villarreal, P. (1997). Examination of self-efficacy support, and stress as predictors of psychological and physical distress among Hispanic college students. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 19, 182-201.
53.
Sundberg, N. D. , & Littman, R. A. (1994). Leona Elizabeth Tyler (1906-1993). American Psychologist, 49, 211-212.
54.
Swanson, J. L. (1996). The theory is the practice: Trait-and-factor/person-environment fit counseling. In M. L. Savickas & W. B. Walsh (Eds.), Handbook of career counseling theory and practice (pp. 93-108). Palo Alto: Davies Black.
55.
Tang, M. , Fouad, N. A., & Smith, P. L. (1999). Asian Americans’ career choices: A path model to examine factors influencing their career choices. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 142-157.
56.
Tyler, L. E. (1947). The psychology of human differences (1st ed.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
57.
Tyler, L. E. (1953). The work of the counselor. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
58.
Tyler, L. E. (1956). The psychology of human differences (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
59.
Tyler, L. E. (1963). Tests and measurements (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
60.
Tyler, L. E. (1965). The psychology of human differences (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
61.
Tyler, L. E. (1971). Tests and measurements (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
62.
Tyler, L. E. (1978). Individuality: Human possibilities and personal choice in the psychological development of men and women. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
63.
Tyler, L. E. (1979). Tests and measurements (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
64.
Tyler, L. E. (1983). Thinking creatively: A new approach to psychology and individual lives. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
65.
Wolfe, L. K. , & Betz, N. E. (1981). Traditionality of choice and sex role orientation as predictors of the congruence of occupational choice in college women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 19, 61-77.
66.
Zilber, S. M. , & Osipow, S. H. (1982). Leona E. Tyler (1906-). In O’Connell, A. N., & Russo, N. F. (Eds.), Women in psychology: A bio-bibliographic sourcebook (pp. 335-341). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
