This study applies a two-level game model to analyze the dramatic redirection of Austrian foreign policy in the post-Cold War era. Austria's official entry into the European Union on January 1, 1995, marked an important transition in its foreign and security policy from forty years of `permanent neutrality' to a new relationship with European partners. Membership had especially significant implications for Austria in light of the Title V agreements of the Maastricht Treaty that called for a Common Foreign and Security Policy. This article explores how Austrian leaders successfully implemented a sophisticated strategy of double-edged diplomacy to convince a majority of the electorate to support membership in the European Union and fundamental constitutional changes in a 1994 referendum. Finally, the article draws conclusions about the significance of domestic political constraints for foreign policy redirection and the implications of the Austrian case for the future of neutrality.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Altmann, Franz-Lothar
(1995) `Mittel und Osteuropa auf dem Weg in die EU', Europaische Rundschau23(1): 46-61.
2.
Avery, Gerald
(1994) `The European Union's Enlargement Negotiations', Oxford International Review5(3): 27-32.
3.
Barry, Charles
(1996) `NATO's Combined Task Forces in Theory and Practice', Survival38(1): 28-46.
4.
Bayne, Nicholas
and Putnam, Robert D. (1987) Hanging Together: Cooperation and Conflict in the Seven-Power Summits. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
5.
Bjørklund, Tor
(1996) `The Three 1994 Referenda Concerning Membership in the EU', Cooperation and Conflict31(1): 11-36.
6.
Butschek, Felix
(1993) `EC Membership and the Velvet Revolution: The Impact of Recent Political Changes on Austria's Economic Position in Europe', in Anton Pelinka and Günter Bischof (eds) Austria in the New Europe — Contemporary Austrian Studies. London: Transaction Publishers.
7.
Cameron, Fraser
(1994) `Die Staaten Mittel- und Osteuropas: Eine Herausforderung für der Europäische Union', Österreiches Jahrbuch für Internationale Politik. Wien, 179-195.
8.
Catinat, Michael
(1988) `The Completion of the Internal Market: Results of Macroeconomic Model Simulations', Commission of the European Communities, Brussels, Economic Papers65.
9.
Commission of the European Communities
(1992) `Europe and the Challenge of Enlargement', Bulletin of the European Communities, Supplement 3/92.
10.
Commission of the European Communities
(1992) `The Challenge of Enlargement: Commission Opinion on Austria's Application for Membership', Bulletin of the European Communities, Supplement 4/92.
11.
Danspeckgruber, Wolfgang
(1993) `Security in Europe 1992', in Anton Pelinka and Günter Bischof (eds) Austria in the New Europe — Contemporary Austrian Studies.
12.
Detlef, Jahn
and Ann-Sofie Storsved (1995) `Legitimacy Through Referendum? The Nearly Successful Domino-Strategy of the EU Referendums in Austria, Finland, Sweden, and Norway', West European Politics18(4): 22.
13.
Economist. Selected Issues, 1992-97.
14.
Ehrhart, Hans-Georg
(1996) `EU, OSZE und der Stabilitätspakt für Europa — Präventive Diplomatie als gemeinsame Aufgabe', Integration19(1): 37-48.
15.
Eichenberg, Richard C.
and Dalton, Russell J. (1993) `Europeans and the European Community: The Dynamics of Public Support for European Integration', International Organization47(4): 507-534.
16.
Eide, Espen Barth
(1996) `Adjustment Strategy of a Non-Member: Norwegian Foreign and Security Policy in the Shadow of the European Union', Cooperation and Conflict31(1): 69-82.
17.
European Commission
(Enlargement Task Force), `Negotiations on the Accession of Austria, Sweden, Finland, and Norway to the European Union', 26 April 1994. Brussels.
18.
Europäische Kommission
(1995) `Weissbuch zur Vorbereitung der Assozierten Staaten Mittel und Osteuropas auf die Integration in den Binnenmarkt der Union', Kom (96) 0163-C4-0166/95, Bruxelles.
19.
Evans, Peter
, Jacobson, Harold, and Putnam, Robert D. (eds) (1993) Double-edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and Domestic Politics. Berkeley: University of California Press.
20.
Financial Times. Selected Articles. 1992-97.
21.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service — Western Europe. Selected Articles. 1988-96.
22.
Gärtner, Heinz
(1995) State, Nation and Security in Central Europe: Democratic States without Nations. Laxenburg (Arbeitspapier No. 17, ÖIIP).
23.
Gärtner, Heinz
(1996a) `Models of European Security and Options for the New “Neutral” members in the European Union — the Austrian Example', European Security5(4): 604-613.
24.
Gärtner, Heinz
(1996b) `Case-by-Case Action and Case-by-Case Neutrality: European Security Models and Options for the New Neutral EU Members (The Austrian Example)', in Visions of European Security — Focal Point Sweden and Northern Europe. Report form. Project Organized by the Olaf Palme International Center Seminar, 8-10 March 1996.
25.
Granell, Fransisco
(1995) `The European Union's Enlargement Negotiations with Austria, Finland, Norway and Sweden', Journal of Common Market Studies33(1): 118-131.
26.
Grieco, Joseph
(1995) `The Maastricht Treaty, Economic and Monetary Union and the Neorealist Research Program', Review of International Studies21.
27.
Hagan, Joe D.
(1995) `Domestic Political Explanations in the Analysis of Foreign Policy', Foreign Policy Analysis: Continuity and Change in Its Second Generation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
28.
Jahn, Detlef
and Storsved, Ann-Sofie (1995) `Legitimacy Through Referendum? The Nearly Successful Domino-Strategy of the EU Referendums in Austria, Finland, Sweden, and Norway', West European Politics18(4): 21-45.
29.
Janning, Josef
(1994) `Europa Braucht Vershiedene Geschwindigkeit', Europa Archiv49(18): 527-536.
30.
Jopp, Mathias
(1994) `The Strategic Implications of European Integration', London: Adelphi Paper No. 290.
31.
Katzenstein, Peter
(1976) Disjointed Partners: Austria and Germany Since 1815. Berkeley: University of California Press.
32.
Kehr, Eckhart
(1965) `Englandhass and Weltpolitik: Eine Studie über die Innenpolitischen und Sozialen Grundlagen der Deutschen Aussenpolitik um die Jahr Hundertwende', Der Primat der Innenpolitik. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter Verlag, 1965.
33.
Knopf, Jeffrey W.
(1993) `Beyond Two-Level Games: Domestic-International Interaction in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Negotiations', International Organization47(4): 599-628.
34.
Der Kurier. Selected Articles. 1989-97.
35.
Luif, Paul
(1991) The Wider Western Europe. London: Pinter Publishers.
36.
Luif, Paul
(1993) `Austrian Neutrality and the Europe of 1992', in Anton Pelinka and Günter Bischof (eds) Austria in the New Europe — Contemporary Austrian Studies. London: Transaction Publishers.
37.
Luther, Kurt Richard
(1995) `An End to the Politics of Isolation? Austria in Light of the 1994 Elections', German Politics4(1): 123-129.
38.
Mayrzedt, Hans
and Hummer, Waldemar (1976) Twenty Years of Austrian Neutrality and European Politics (1955-1974). Vienna: Braumueller.
39.
Mearsheimer, John J.
(1990) `Back to the Future: Instability in Europe After the Cold War', International Security15(1): 5-56.
40.
Mo, Jongryn
(1995) `Domestic Institutions and International Bargaining: The Role of the Agent Veto in Two-Level Games', American Political Science Review84(4): 914-924.
41.
Moravcsik, Andrew
(1993) `Introduction: Integrating International and Domestic Explanations of World Politics', in Peter Evans, Harold Jacobson, and Robert D. Putnam (eds) (1993) Double-edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and Domestic Politics. Berkeley: University of California Press.
42.
Neuhold, Hans Peter
and Vetschera, Heinz (1984) `Austria's Security Policy', Vienna: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research.
43.
Neue Kronen-Zeitung. Selected Articles. 1993-94.
44.
New York Times. Selected Articles. 1994-97.
45.
Pagani, Steve
(1994) `Austria Ready to Join EU in January', Reuters, 22 November: A3.
46.
Morrow, James D.
(1997) `When Do Relative Gains Impede Trade?', in Robert Pahre and Paul A. Papayoanou (eds) Journal of Conflict Resolution41(7) (special issue).
47.
Pelinka, Anton
, ed. (1994) EU-Referendum: zur Praxis direkter Demokratie in Österreich. Wien: Signum Verlag.
48.
Pelinka, Anton
and Sylvia Greiderer (1996) `Austria: The Referendum as an Instrument of Internationalization', in Michael Gallagher and Pier V. Uleri (eds) The Referendum Experience in Europe. New York: St Martin's.
49.
Plasser, Fritz
and Peter A. Ulram (1994) `Meinungstrends und Motivlagen bei der Volksabstimmung über den EU-Beitritt', in Anton Pelinka, ed. EU Referendum: zur Praxis direkter Demokratie in Österreich.
50.
Presse, Die. Selected Articles. 1988-97.
51.
Prisching, Manfred
(1993) `The Transformation of Austria in the Context of New Europe', in Anton Pelinka and Günter Bischof (eds) Austria in the New Europe — Contemporary Austrian Studies. London: Transaction Publishers.
52.
Pulzer, Peter
(1995) `Small Earthquake in Austria: The National Election of 9 October 1994', West European Politics18(2): 432.
53.
Putnam, Robert D.
(1988) `Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-level Games', International Organization42(3): 427-460.
54.
Rathkolb, Oliver
(1993) `Austria and European Integration after World War II', in Anton Pelinka and Günter Bischof (eds) Austria in the New Europe — Contemporary Austrian Studies. London: Transaction Publishers.
55.
Riekhoff, Harold von.
(1993) `Unequal Partners: A Comparative Analysis of Relations Between Austria and the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States and Canada', Vienna: Austrian Institute for International Affairs.
56.
Rothacher, Albert
(1995) `EU Accession and Political Change in Austria', Journal of European Integration19(1): 71-88.
57.
Schultz, D. Mark
(1992) `Austria in the International Arena: Neutrality, European Integration, and Consociationalism', in Kurt R. Luther and Wolfgang Muller (eds) Politics in Austria: A Case for Consociationalism. London: Frank Cass.
58.
Schweller, Randall L.
(1994) `Bandwagoning for Profit: Bringing the Revisionist State Back In', International Security19(1): 72-109.
59.
Solsten, Eric
and McClave, David E. (1994) Austria: A Country Study. Washington DC: Library of Congress.
60.
Standard, Der. Selected Articles. 1992-94.
61.
Stankovsky, Johan
(1974) `Die Osterriechischen Integrationsverträge mit den Europäischen Gemeinshcaften', Monatsberichte47(2): 84.
62.
Sully, Melanie A.
(1991) `Austria's New Government: Fresh Start or Swan Song?'The World Today51(47): 32-34.
63.
Sully, Melanie A.
(1992) `Austria: The End of an Era', The World Today52(48): 143-144.
64.
Sully, Melanie A.
(1995) `The Austrian Referendum of 1994', Electoral Studies14(1): 67-69.
65.
Sundelius, Bengt
(1994) `Changing Course: When Neutral Sweden Chose to Join the European Community', in Walter Carlsnaes and Steve Smith (eds) European Foreign Policy: The EC and Changing Perspectives in Europe. London: Sage.
66.
Taylor, Trevor
(1994) `West European Security and Defense Cooperation: Maastricht and Beyond', International Affairs70(1): 1-16.
67.
Törnudd, Klaus
(1996) `Ties that Bind to the Recent Past: Debating Security Policy in Finland within the Context of Membership of the European Union', Cooperation and Conflict31(1): 37.
68.
Vetschera, Heinz
(1985) `Neutrality and Defense: Legal Theory and Military Practice in the European Neutrals' Defense Policies', Defense Analysis1(1): 51-64.
69.
Wall Street Journal. Selected Articles. 1994.
70.
Waltz, Kenneth N.
(1993) `The Emerging Structure of International Politics', International Security18(2): 44-79.
