The central contention of this article holds that scholars do not adequately assess
and explain the influence of transboundary security issues on government behaviour.
Their assessment is not adequate because they do not fully conceptualize
the relationship between internal and external security concerns. Their
explanations are not adequate because existing theories cannot fully
explain how and why states respond to transboundary security issues. To rectify
these concerns, stimulate and structure further research, and encourage scholarly
dialogue, we build an analytical framework for (a) understanding what we describe as
the ‘nexus’ of internal and external security matters, and (b)
explaining why that nexus may change state behaviour on transboundary security
issues. The resulting framework encourages a strong focus on the nature of
transboundary problems before studying their implications for changes in
perceptions, policies, politics and polity.
Adler, E.
and
M. Barnett
, eds (1998) Security Communities.
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press .
2.
Alain, M.
( 2001)
‘Transnational Police Cooperation in Europe and in North
America: Revisiting the Traditional Border Between Internal and External
Security Matters’
, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice9: 113-29.
3.
Albert, M.
et al. (2001) Identities, Borders, Orders: Rethinking
International Relations Theory. Minneapolis,
MN: University of Minnesota
Press.
4.
Allison, G.
and
Zelikow, P.
( 1999) Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile
Crisis . London:
Longman.
5.
Anderson, M.
( 2007) ‘Internal and External Security in the EU:
Is There Any Longer a Distinction?’ in
S. Gänzle
and
A. G. Sens
(eds) The Changing Politics of European Security: Europe Alone?
pp. 31-46. Basingstoke :
Palgrave Macmillan.
6.
Andreas, P.
and
Biersteker, T.
, eds (2003) The Rebordering of North America: Integration and
Exclusion in a New Security Context.
London :
Routledge.
7.
Balzacq, T.
( 2005)
‘The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience,
and Context’
, European Journal of International Relations11: 171-202.
8.
Barrett, S.
( 2007) Why Cooperate? The Incentive to Supply Global Public
Goods . Oxford: Oxford
University Press .
9.
Beck, U.
( 2002)
‘The Terrorist Threat: World Risk Society Revisited’,
Theory
, Culture and Society19: 39-55.
10.
Beck, U.
( 2008)
‘Reframing Power in a Globalized World’
, Organization Studies29: 793-804.
11.
Bigo, D.
( 2001) ‘Internal and External Security(ies): The
Möbius Ribbon’, in
M. Albert
,
D. Jacobson
and
Y. Lapid
(eds) Identities, Borders and Orders, pp.
91-136. Minneapolis, MN:
Minnesota University Press.
12.
Bigo, D.
( 2005) Policing Insecurity Today: Defense and Internal
Security .
Houndmills
, UK:
Palgrave
.
13.
Bigo, D.
( 2006)
‘Internal and External Aspects of Security’
, European Security15: 385-404.
14.
Boin, A.
and
Rhinard, M.
( 2008)
‘Managing Transboundary Crises: What Role for the European
Union?’International Studies Review10: 1-26.
15.
Boin, R.A.
and ‘t
Hart, P.
( 2004) ‘Coping with Crisis Complexity: Trends,
Challenges and Pathways’, in
R. Fisch
and
D. Beck
(eds) Komplexitätsmanagement in Regierung, Wirtschaft und
Verwaltung: Methoden zum Umgang mit Komplexen Aufgabenstellungen, pp.
233-48. Wiesbaden:
VS Verlag für
Sozialwissenschaften.
16.
Boin, Arjen
,
‘t Hart, P.
,
Sterns, E.K.
et al. (2005) The Politics of Crisis Management: Public
Leadership Under Pressure. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
17.
Bonditti, P.
( 2004)
‘From Territorial Space to Networks: A Foucaldian Approach to
the Implementation of Biometry’
, Alternatives29: 465-82.
18.
Boulding, K.
( 1959)
‘National Images and International Systems’
, Conflict Resolution11: 120-31.
19.
Britz, M.
( 2006)
Problems of Europeanization - Lessons from the Defence Industry Policy
Area
. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Swedish Network
for European Studies in Political Science , 16-17 March,
2006, Umeå,
Sweden.
20.
Brown, M. E.
,
Coté Jr. O.
,
Lynn-Jones, J. M.
et al., eds (2000) Rational Choice and Security Studies:
Stephen Walt and His Critics. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
21.
Browning, C.S.
( 2003) ‘The Internal/External Security Paradox
and the Reconstruction of Boundaries in the Baltic: The Case of
Kaliningrad’, CIAO Working Papers. Available at:
http://www.ciaonet.org/wps/brc04/brc04.pdf .
22.
Burton, John W.
( 1972) World Society.
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
23.
Buzan, B.
( 1991) Peoples, States and Fear. An Agenda for International
Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era, 2nd edn.
Harlow:
Longman.
24.
Buzan, B.
and
Wæver, O.
( 2004) Regions and Powers: The Structure of International
Security . Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
25.
Buzan, B.
,
Wæver, O.
and
de Wilde, J.
( 1998) Security: A New Framework for Analysis.
Boulder, CO: Lynne
Rienner.
26.
Börzel, T.A.
and
Risse, T.
( 2000) ‘When Europe Hits Home: Europeanization
and Domestic Change’, European Integration Online Papers 4.
Available at: http://eiop.or.at/eiop/texte/2000-015a.htm.
27.
Campbell, D.
( 1998) Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and
the Politics of Identity. Minneapolis, MN:
University of Minnesota Press.
28.
Caporaso, J.A.
( 1997)
‘Across the Great Divide: Integrating Comparative and
International Politics’
, International Studies Quarterly41: 563-92.
29.
Castells, Manuel
( 1996) The Rise of the Network Society, The Information Age:
Economy, Society and Culture, vol. I.
Cambridge, MA
; Oxford, UK:
Blackwell .
30.
Coker, C.
( 2002) Globalization and Insecurity in the Twenty-First
Century: NATO and the Management of Risk. Adelphi Paper No. 345,
IISS
.
31.
Cooper, R.
( 2003) The Breaking of Nations: Order and Chaos in the
Twenty-First Century. London:
Atlantic Books .
32.
Di Puppo, L.
( 2009)
‘The Externalization of JHA Policies in Georgia: Partner or
Hotbed of Threats’
, Journal of European Integration31: 103-18.
33.
Douglas, M.
( 1986) How Institutions Think.
Syracuse, NY : Syracuse University
Press.
34.
Duke, S.
and
Ojanen, H.
( 2006)
‘Bridging Internal and External Security: Lessons from the
European Security and Defence Policy’
, Journal of European Integration28: 477-94.
35.
Dunn-Cavelty, M.
( 2008) Cyber-Security and Threat Politics: US Efforts to
Secure the Information Age. London:
Routledge .
36.
Dunn-Cavelty, M.
,
Mauer, V.
and
Krishna-Hensel, S.
( 2008) Power and Security in the Information Age:
Investigating the Role of the State in Cyberspace.
Aldershot:
Ashgate.
37.
Egan, Matthew J.
( 2007)
‘Anticipating Future Vulnerability: Defining Characteristics of
Increasingly Critical Infrastructure-like Systems’
, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management15: 4-17.
38.
Ekengren, M.
( 2008)
‘Transcending the Internal-External Divide: Challenges for the
ESDP and the EU Solidarity Clause’
. Paper presented at the Conference ‘The External and
Internal Security Policy Nexus: Beyond the Domestic-International
Divide’ on 14-16 May in Stockholm.
39.
Eriksson, J.
, ed. (2001) Threat Politics: New Perspectives on Security,
Risk and Crisis Management. Aldershot:
Ashgate.
40.
Eriksson, J.
and
Giacomello, G.
, eds (2007) International Relations and Security in the
Digital Age. London:
Routledge.
41.
Eriksson, J.
and
Giacomello, G.
( 2009)
‘Who Controls the Internet? Beyond the Obstinacy or Obsolescence
of the State’
, International Studies Review11: 205-30 (contributing editors
of The Forum).
42.
Fearon, J.D.
( 1998)
‘Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Theories of
International Relations’
, Annual Reviews, Political Science1: 289-313.
43.
Fidler, D.P.
( 2004) SARS: Governance and the Globalization of
Disease . Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan .
44.
Fligstein, N.
( 2001)
‘Social Skill and the Theory of Fields’
, Sociological Theory19: 105-25.
45.
Foxell, J.J.W.
( 1999)
‘Trends in Bio-Terrorism: Two Generations of Potential
Weapons’
, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management7: 102-18.
46.
Fritzon, Åsa
,
Ljungkvist, Kristin
,
Boin, Arjen
and
Rhinard, Mark
( 2007)
‘Protecting Europe’s Critical Infrastructures:
Problems and Prospects’
, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management15: 30-41.
47.
George, A.L.
and
Bennett, A.
( 2005) Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social
Sciences . Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press .
48.
Glasius, M.
and
Kaldor, M.
, eds (2008) A Human Security Doctrine for Europe: Project,
Principles, Practicalities. London ,
Routledge.
49.
Goldmann, K.
( 1989)
‘The Line in Water: International and Domestic
Politics’
, Cooperation and Conflict24: 103-16.
50.
Goldstein, J.
and
Keohane, R.O.
( 1993) ‘Ideas and Foreign Policy: An Analytical
Framework’ , in
J. Goldstein
and
R. O. Keohane
(eds) Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political
Change, pp. 3-30. Ithaca,
NY: Cornell University
Press.
51.
Gourevitch, P.A.
( 1986) Politics in Hard Times.
Ithaca, NY : Cornell University
Press.
52.
Grabbe, H.
( 2003) ‘Stabilizing the East While Keeping Out
the Easterners: Internal and External Security Logics in
Conflict’, in
S. Lavenex
and
E. M. Uçarer
(eds) Migration and the Externalities of European Integration.
Lanham, MD: Lexington
Books.
53.
Gross Stein, J.
( 2002) ‘Psychological Explanations of
International Conflict’ , in
W. Carlsnæs
,
T. Risse-Kappen
and
B. A. Simmons
(eds) Handbook of International Relations, pp.
292-308. London:
Sage.
54.
Guzzini, S.
and
Jung, D.
, eds (2004) Security Analysis and Copenhagen Peace
Research. London:
Routledge .
55.
Hagan, J.D.
( 1993) Political Opposition and Foreign Policy in
Comparative Perspective. Boulder, CO:
Lynne Rienner.
56.
Hall, J.A.
( 1993) ‘Ideas and the Social
Sciences’, in
J. Goldstein
and
R. O. Keohane
(eds) Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political
Change, pp. 31-54. Ithaca,
NY: Cornell University
Press.
57.
Hamilton, D.S.
( 2005) ‘Societal Security and Homeland
Security’ , in
D. S. Hamilton
,
B. Sundelius
and
J. Grönvall
(eds) Protecting the Homeland: European Approaches to Societal Security
- Implications for the United States. Washington
DC: The Transatlantic Center of Johns Hopkins
University .
58.
Hammond, T.H.
( 1986)
‘Agenda Control, Organizational Structure, and Bureaucratic
Politics’
, American Journal of Political Science30: 379-420.
59.
Hansen, L.
( 2000)
‘The Little Mermaid’s Silent Security Dilemma and the
Absence of Gender in the Copenhagen School’
, Millennium29: 285-306.
60.
Hoffman, B.
( 1998) Inside Terrorism. New
York: Columbia University
Press.
61.
Huysmans, J.
( 2000)
‘The European Union and the Securitization of
Migration’
, Journal of Common Market Studies38: 751-77.
62.
Huysmans, J.
( 2006) The Politics of Insecurity: Fear, Migration and
Asylum in the EU. London:
Routledge .
63.
Huysmans, J.
,
Dobson, A.
and
Prokhovnik, R.
, eds ( 2006) The Politics of Protection: Sites of Insecurity
and Political Agency. London:
Routledge .
64.
Jackson, R.J.
( 1976) ‘Crisis Management and
Policymaking’ , in
R. Rose
(ed.) The Dynamics of Public Policy: A Comparative Analysis, pp.
209-35. London :
Sage.
65.
Jervis, R.
( 1976) Perception and Misperception in International
Politics . Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
66.
Johnson, R.H.
( 1997) Improbable Dangers: U.S. Conceptions of Threat in the
Cold War and After. Basingstoke:
Macmillan.
67.
Kaiser, K.
( 1971)
‘Transnational Politics: Toward a Theory of Multinational
Politics’
, International Organization25: 790-817.
68.
Kaldor, Mary
( 2006) New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global
Era. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford
University Press.
69.
Kalis, M.A.
( 2001)
‘A New Approach to International Terrorism’
, International Affairs Review10: 80-95.
70.
Keeler, J.
( 1993)
‘Opening the Window for Reform’
, Comparative Political Studies25: 433-86.
71.
Keohane, R.O.
and
Nye, J.S.
( 2001) Power and Interdependence, 3rd edn.
London:
Longman.
72.
Khan, A.
( 1987)
‘A Theory of International Terrorism’
, Connecticut Law Review19:
945
.
73.
Kingdon, J.W.
( 1995) Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policy,
2nd edn. New York:
HarperCollins.
74.
Knill, C.
and
Lehmkuhl, D.
( 1999) ‘How Europe Matters: Different Mechanisms
of Europeanization’, European Integration Online Papers 3.
Available at: http://eiop.or.at/eiop/texte/1999-007a.htm .
75.
Laqueur, Walter
( 2003) No End to War: Terrorism in the Twenty-first
Century .
New York
, London: Continuum
International Publishing Group.
76.
Laumann, Edward O.
and
Knoke, David
( 1989) ‘Policy Networks of the Organizational
State: Collective Action in the National Energy and Health
Domains’, in
Robert Perrucci
and
Harry R. Potter
(eds) Networks of Power: Organizational Actors at the National,
Corporate and Community Levels, pp. 17-55.
New York: Aldine de
Gruyter.
77.
Lasswell, H.
( 1990) Politics: Who Gets What, When and How.
Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith
Publisher .
78.
Lavenex, S.
( 2004)
‘EU External Governance in "Wider Europe"’
, Journal of European Public Policy11: 680-700.
79.
Lewis, James A.
( 2007) ‘Cyber Attacks Explained’. CSIS
Commentary .
Washington DC.
Available at:
http://www.csis.org/media/csis/pubs/070615_cyber_attacks.pdf
80.
Lowi, T.
( 1972)
‘Four Systems of Policy, Politics, and Choice’
, Public Administration Review32 (July/August):
298-310.
81.
Lutterbeck, D.
( 2004)
‘Between Police and Military: The New Security Agenda and the
Rise of Gendarmeries’
, Cooperation and Conflict39: 45-68.
82.
Lutterbeck, D.
( 2005)
‘Blurring the Dividing Line: The Convergence of Internal and
External Security in Western Europe’
, European Security14: 231-53.
83.
McDonald, M.
( 2008)
‘Securitization and the Construction of
Security’
, European Journal of International Relations14: 563-587.
84.
Martin, L.L.
and
Simmons, B.A.
( 1998)
‘Theories and Empirical Studies of International
Institutions’
, International Organization52: 729-57.
85.
Mathiason, J.
( 2007)
‘Internet Governance Wars: The Realists Strike
Back’
, International Studies Review9: 152-5.
86.
Mearsheimer, J.J.
( 2003) The Tragedy of Great Power Conflicts.
New York: W. W.
Norton.
87.
Michaud, N.
( 2002)
‘Bureaucratic Politics and the Shaping of Policies: Can We
Measure Pulling and Hauling Games
?’ Canadian Journal of Political Science35: 369-400.
88.
Michel-Kerjan, E.
( 2003)
‘New Challenges in Critical Infrastructures: A US
Perspective’
, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management11: 132-41.
89.
Mueller, John
( 2006)
‘Is There Still a Terrorist Threat? The Myth of the Omnipresent
Enemy’
, Foreign Affairs, September/October.
90.
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States
(2004) The 9-11 Commission Report.
Washington, DC: U.S.
Government.
91.
North, D.C.
( 1990) Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic
Performance . Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
92.
Parsons, D.W.
( 1995) Public Policy: An Introduction to the Theory and
Practice of Policy Analysis. Aldershot:
Edward Elgar.
93.
Pastore, F.
( 2001) ‘Reconciling the Prince’s Two
"Arms": Internal-External Security Policy Coordination in the European
Union’, European Union Institute for Strategic Studies, Occasional
Paper No. 30.
94.
Pawlak, P.
( 2009)
‘The External Dimension of the Area of Freedom, Security and
Justice: Hijacker or Hostage of Cross-pillarization?’
, Journal of European Integration31: 25-44.
95.
Perrow, Charles
( 1984) Normal Accidents: Living With High Risk Technologies,
rev. edn, 1999). Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
96.
Peters, B.G.
( 2005) Institutional Theory in Political Science, 2nd
rev. edn.
London
and New York: Continuum
International Publishers.
97.
Pierson, P.
( 1996) ‘The Path to European Integration: A
Historical-Institutionalist Approach’, in
W. Sandholtz
and
A. Stone
Sweet (eds) European Integration and Supranational Governance, pp.
27-58. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
98.
Posthumus, S.
and
Solms, R.V.
( 2004)
‘A Framework for the Governance of Information
Security’
, Computers and Security23: 638-46.
99.
Rees, W.
( 2008)
‘Inside Out: the External Face of EU Internal Security
Policy’
, Journal of European Integration30: 97-111.
100.
Risse-Kappen, T.
, ed. (1995) Bringing Transnational Relations Back In:
Non-State Actors, Domestic Structures, and International
Institutions. Cambridge : Cambridge
University Press.
101.
Rosenau, J.N.
( 1997) Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier: Exploring
Governance in a Turbulent World.
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Sabatier, P.
and
Jenkins-Smith, H.
, eds (1993) Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition
Approach. Boulder, CO: Westview
Press.
104.
Sageman, Marc
( 2004) Understanding Terror Networks.
Philadelphia
, PA:
University of Pennsylvania Press
.
105.
Saker, L.
,
Lee, K.
,
Cannito, B.
et al. (2004) ‘Globalization and Infectious
Diseases: A Review of Linkages. Special Topics’, No. 3, Special
Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TPR) Research
Report. Geneva, UNICEF, UNDP, World
Bank, WHO .
106.
Schmitter, P.C.
( 2000) How to Democratize the European Union ... And Why
Bother?London: Rowman and
Littlefield .
107.
Schön, D.A.
and
Rein, M.
( 1994) Frame Reflection: Toward the Resolution of
Intractable Policy Controversies. New
York: Basic Books.
108.
Selznick, P.
( 1947) The Tennessee Valley Authority and the
Grassroots . Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press.
109.
Sjöstedt, Roxanna
( 2009)
‘Exploring the Construction of Threats: The Securitization of
HIV/AIDS in Russia’
, Security Dialogue39: 7-29.
110.
Smith, S.
( 2005) ‘The Contested Concept of
Security’ , in
K. Booth
(ed.) Critical Security Studies and World Politics.
Boulder, CO: Lynne
Rienner.
111.
Snow, D.A.
and
Benford, R.D.
( 1992) ‘Master Frames and Cycles of
Protest’ , in
A. D. Morris
and
C. M. Mueller
(eds) Frontiers in Social Movement Theory .
New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
112.
Spring, Ú.O.
and
Brauch, H.G.
( 2008) ‘Reconceptualizing Security in the 21st
Century: Conclusions for Research and Policy-making’, in
H. G. Brauch
, et al. (eds) Globalization and Environmental Challenges.
Berlin:
Springer.
113.
Stares, P.
, ed. (1998) The New Security Agenda: A Global Survey.
New York: Japan Center for
International Exchange.
114.
Steinbruner, J.D.
( 2000) Principles of Global Security.
Washington, DC: Brookings
Institution Press.
115.
Stern, E.
and
Parker, C.
( 2005)
‘Bolt From the Blue or Avoidable Failure? Revisiting September
11 and the Origins of Strategic Surprise’
, Foreign Policy Analysis1: 301-31.
116.
Stritzel, H.
( 2007)
‘Towards a Theory of Securitization: Copenhagen and
Beyond’
, European Journal of International Relations13: 357-83.
117.
Sundelius, B.
( 2005) ‘Disruptions: Functional Security for the
EU’ , in
A. Missiroli
(ed.) Disasters, Diseases, Disruptions: A New D-Drive for the European
Union, pp. 67-84.
Paris: Institute for Security Studies,
European Union . Chaillot Paper No. 83.
118.
Sundelius, B.
and
Grönvall, J.
( 2004)
‘Strategic Dilemmas of Biosecurity in theEuropean Union’, Biosecurity and Bioterrorism2: 17-23.
119.
Tenner, Edward
( 1997) Why Things Bite Back: Technology and the Revenge of
Unintended Consequences. New York:
Random House .
120.
Traynor, I.
( 2007)
‘Russia Accused of Unleashing Cyberwar to Disable
Estonia’
, The Guardian (May 17).
121.
UK National Risk Register (2008).
London: UK Cabinet
Office.
122.
Ullman, R.
( 1983)
‘Redefining Security’
, International Security8: 129-53.
123.
Wæver, O.
( 1995) ‘Securitization and
Desecuritization’ , in
R. D. Lipschutz
(ed.) On Security . New York:
Columbia University Press.
124.
Waltz, K.
( 1979) Theory of International Politics.
New York:
McGraw-Hill.
125.
Weber, Max
( 1948) From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. Translated,
edited and with an introduction by H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills.
London: K. Paul, Trench,
Trubner.
126.
Wildavsky, A.
( 1979) Speaking Truth to Power: The Art and Craft of Policy
Analysis . Boston, MA: Little
Brown .
127.
Williams, M.
( 2003)
‘Words, Images, Enemies: Securitization and International
Politics’, International Studies Quarterly47: 511-31.
128.
Wolfers, A.
( 1952)
‘National Security as an Ambiguous Symbol’
, Political Science Quarterly67: 481-502.
129.
Wolff, S.
,
Wichmann, N.
and
Mounier, G.(2009) ‘The External Dimension of Justice and Home Affairs: A
Different Security Agenda for the EU?’
, Journal of European Integration31: 9-23.
