The written languages and handwriting acquisition stages place different demands on the writer. Therefore, the relationship between body functions and handwriting performance may vary in different languages and acquisition stages; yet these demands have not been studied in the Arabic language.
Purpose.
We examined the relationship between linguistic, visual-motor integration (VMI), and motor coordination (MC) functions and Arabic handwriting at two handwriting acquisition stages.
Method.
This study used a cross-sectional and correlative design. Second- (n = 54) and fourth-grade (n = 59) students performed tasks examining reading, handwriting automaticity, VMI, MC, and copying a text.
Findings.
Handwriting automaticity significantly explained the variance in handwriting speed in both grades, in addition to the VMI in second grade and the MC in fourth grade. Enhanced performance in the VMI increased the likelihood of having good legibility in second but not in fourth grade.
Implications.
Similar to other languages, the body functions related to Arabic handwriting vary at the different acquisition stages. Handwriting evaluation should be adjusted to students’ acquisition stage.
AbbottR. D.BerningerV. W.FayolM. (2010). Longitudinal relationships of levels of language in writing and between writing and reading in Grades 1 to 7. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 281–298. doi:10.1037/a0019318
2.
AlstadZ.SandersE.AbbottR. D.BarnettA. L.HendersonS. E.ConnellyV.BerningerV. W. (2015). Modes of alphabet letter production during middle childhood and adolescence: Interrelationships with each other and other writing skills. Journal of Writing Research, 6(3), 199–231. doi:10.17239/jowr-2015.06.03.1
3.
American Occupational Therapy Association. (2017). Occupational Therapy Practice Framework: Domain and process. 3rd edition. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 68, S1–S48. doi:10.5014/ajot.2014.682006
4.
BaraF.GentazE. (2011). Haptics in teaching handwriting: The role of perceptual and visuo-motor skills. Human Movement Science, 30, 745–759. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2010.05.015
5.
BeeryK.BeeryN. A. (2004). The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (5th ed.). Minneapolis, MN: NCS Pearson.
6.
BerningerV. W.AbbottR. D.AugsburgerA.GarciaN. (2009). Comparison of pen and keyboard transcription modes in children with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 32(3), 123–141.
7.
BerningerV. W.AbbottR. D.JonesJ.WolfB. J.GouldL.Anderson-YoungstromM.…ApelK. (2006). Early development of language by hand: Composing, reading, listening, and speaking connections; three letter-writing modes; and fast mapping in spelling. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29(1), 61–92. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2901_5
8.
BerningerV. W.AbbottR. D.SwansonH. L.LovittD.TrivediP.LinS.-J. C.…AmtmannD. (2010). Relationship of word- and sentence-level working memory to reading and writing in second, fourth, and sixth grade. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 41(2), 179–193. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2009/08-0002)
9.
BerningerV. W.MizokawaD. T.BraggR. (1991). Scientific practitioner: Theory-based diagnosis and remediation of writing disabilities. Journal of School Psychology, 29(1), 57–79. doi:10.1016/0022-4405(91)90016-K
10.
BerningerV. W.RutbergJ. E.AbbottR. D.GarciaN.Anderson-YoungstromM.BrooksA.FultonC. (2006). Tier 1 and Tier 2 early intervention for handwriting and composing. Journal of School Psychology, 44(1), 3–30. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2005.12.003
11.
BoJ.ColbertA.LeeC. M.SchaffertJ.OswaldK.NeillR. (2014). Examining the relationship between motor assessments and handwriting consistency in children with and without probable developmental coordination disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35, 2035–2043. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.04.027
12.
Bosga-StorkI.BosgaJ.EllisJ.MeulenbroekR. (2016). Developing interactions between language and motor skills in the first three years of formal handwriting education. British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 12(1), 1–13. doi:10.9734/BJESBS/2016/20703
13.
BrownT.LinkJ. (2016). The association between measures of visual perception, visual-motor integration, and in-hand manipulation skills of school-age children and their manuscript handwriting speed. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 79(3), 163–171. doi:10.1177/0308022615600179
14.
ChristensenC. A. (2005). The role of orthographic–motor integration in the production of creative and well-structured written text for students in secondary school. Educational Psychology, 25(5), 441–453. doi:10.1080/01443410500042076
15.
DuiserI. H. F.van der KampJ.LedebtA.SavelsberghG. J. P. (2014). Relationship between the quality of children’s handwriting and the Beery Buktenica developmental test of visuomotor integration after one year of writing tuition. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 61, 76–82. doi:10.1111/1440-1630.12064
16.
FederK. P.MajnemerA. (2007). Handwriting development, competency, and intervention. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 49, 312–317. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00312.x
17.
FriedmannN.Haddad-HannaM. (2012). Letter position dyslexia in Arabic: From form to position. Behavioural Neurology, 25, 193–203. doi:10.3233/BEN-2012-119004
18.
GerthS.KlassertA.DolkT.FliesserM.FischerM. H.NottbuschG.FestmanJ. (2016). Is handwriting performance affected by the writing surface? Comparing preschoolers’, second graders’, and adults’ writing performance on a tablet vs. paper. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Article 1308. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01308
19.
GoyenT. A.DuffS. (2005). Discriminant validity of the developmental test of visual-motor integration in relation to children with handwriting dysfunction. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 52, 109–115. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1630.2005.00488.x
20.
GrahamS.HarrisK. R.FinkB. (2000). Is handwriting causally related to learning to write? Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 620–633. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.4.620
21.
GrahamS.StruckM.SantoroJ.BerningerV. W. (2006). Dimensions of good and poor handwriting legibility in first and second graders: Motor programs, visual-spatial arrangement, and letter formation parameter setting. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29, 43–60. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2901_4
22.
HammillN.PearsonJ.VoressJ. K. (1993). Developmental Test of Visual Perception: Examiner’s manual. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
23.
HoyM. M. P.EganM. Y.FederK. P. (2011). A systematic review of interventions to improve handwriting. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78, 13–25. doi:10.2182/cjot.2011.78.1.3
24.
KaiserM.-L.AlbaretJ.-M.DoudinP.-A. (2009). Relationship between visual-motor integration, eye-hand coordination, and quality of handwriting. Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools, & Early Intervention, 2(2), 87–95. doi:10.1080/19411240903146228
25.
KandelS.PerretC. (2015). How does the interaction between spelling and motor processes build up during writing acquisition?Cognition, 136, 325–336. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.11.014
26.
KarlsdottirR.StefanssonT. (2002). Problems in developing functional handwriting. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 91, 623–662. doi:10.2466/pms.2002.94.2.623
27.
KleinJ.TaubD. (2005). The effect of variations in handwriting and print on evaluation of student essays. Assessing Writing, 10(2), 134–148. doi:10.1016/j.asw.2005.05.002
28.
KleinS.GuiltnerV.SollerederP.CuiY. (2011). Relationships between fine-motor, visual-motor, and visual perception scores and handwriting legibility and speed. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 31(1), 103–114. doi:10.3109/01942638.2010.541753
29.
LimpoT.AlvesR. A. (2013). Modeling writing development: Contribution of transcription and self-regulation to Portuguese students’ text generation quality. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 401–413. doi:10.1037/a0031391
30.
LoganG. D. (1988). Toward an instance theory of automatization. Psychological Review, 95, 492–527. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.95.4.492
31.
MaelandA. (1992). Handwriting and perceptual-motor skills in clumsy, dysgraphic, and “normal” children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75(3S), 1207–1217.
McMasterE.RobertsT. (2016). Handwriting in 2015: A main occupation for primary school–aged children in the classroom?Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools, & Early Intervention, 9(1), 38–50. doi:10.1080/19411243.2016.1141084
34.
MolfeseV. J.BeswickJ.MolnarA.Jacobi-VesselsJ. (2006). Alphabetic skills in preschool: A preliminary study of letter naming and letter writing. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29(1), 5–19. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2901_2
35.
OverveldeA.HulstijnW. (2011). Handwriting development in Grade 2 and Grade 3 primary school children with normal, at risk, or dysgraphic characteristics. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32(2), 540–548. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.12.027
36.
ParushS.LifshitzN.YochmanA.WeintraubN. (2010). Relationships between handwriting components and underlying perceptual-motor functions among students during copying and dictation tasks. OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health, 30, 39–48. doi:10.3928/15394492-20091214-06
37.
PoonK. W.Li-TsangC. W. P.WeissT. P. L.RosenblumS. (2010). The effect of a computerized visual perception and visual-motor integration training program on improving Chinese handwriting of children with handwriting difficulties. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31, 1552–1560. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.06.001
38.
PruntyM. M.BarnettA. L.WilmutK.PlumbM. S. (2016). The impact of handwriting difficulties on compositional quality in children with developmental coordination disorder. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 79, 591–597. doi:10.1177/0308022616650903
39.
RavenJ. C.StylesI.RavenM. A. (1998). Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices: CPM plus test booklet. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
40.
RosenblumS.WeissL.ParushP. (2003). Product and process evaluation of handwriting difficulties. Educational Psychology Review, 15, 41–81. doi:10.1023/A:1021371425220
41.
Salameh-MatarA.BasalN.Nashef-TaliB.WeintraubN. (2010). Arabic Handwriting Assessment for Elementary School Students (A-HAT). Jerusalem, Israel: School of Occupational Therapy of Hadassah and Hebrew University.
42.
Salameh-MatarA.BasalN.Nashef-TaliB.WeintraubN. (2016). Development and validity of the Arabic Handwriting Assessment for Elementary School Students. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 79, 212–219. doi:10.1177/0308022615616819
43.
ShenI. H.LeeT. Y.ChenC. L. (2012). Handwriting performance and underlying factors in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 33, 1301–1309. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2012.02.010
44.
Smits-EngelsmanB. C. M.NiemeijerA. S.Van GalenG. P. (2001). Fine motor deficiencies in children diagnosed as DCD based on poor grapho-motor ability. Human Movement Science, 20(1/2), 161–182. doi:10.1016/S0167-9457(01)00033 -1
45.
Smits-EngelsmanB. C. M.WilsonP. H.WestenbergY.DuysensJ. (2003). Fine motor deficiencies in children with developmental coordination disorder and learning disabilities: An underlying open-loop control deficit. Human Movement Science, 22(4/5), 495–513. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2003.09.006
46.
TahaH. (2009). Diagnostic Reading Test in Arabic for Elementary-School Students, 2nd-6th grade. Haifa, Israel: Haifa University.
TsengM. H.ChowS. M. K. (2000). Perceptual-motor function of school-age children with slow handwriting speed. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 54, 83–88. doi:10.5014/ajot.54.1.83
49.
ValenciaR. R. (1984). Reliability of the Raven Coloured Progressive Matrices for Anglo and for Mexican-American children. Psychology in the Schools, 21(1), 49–52. doi:10.1002/1520-6807(198401)21:1<49:: AID-PITS2310210109>3.0.CO;2-H
50.
van GalenG. P. (1991). Handwriting: Issues for a psychomotor theory. Human Movement Science, 10(2/3), 165–191. doi:10.1016/0167-9457(91)90003-G
51.
van HoornJ. F.MaathuisC. G. B.Hadders-AlgraM. (2013). Neural correlates of paediatric dysgraphia. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 55(Suppl. 4), 65–68. doi:10.1111/dmcn.12310
52.
VolmanM. J. M.van SchendelB. M.JongmansM. J. (2006). Handwriting difficulties in primary school children: A search for underlying mechanisms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 60, 451–460. doi:10.5014/ajot.60.4.451
53.
WeintraubN.GrahamS. (1998). Writing legibly and quickly: A study of children’s ability to adjust their handwriting to meet common classroom demands. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 13, 146–152.
54.
WeintraubN.GrahamS. (2000). The contribution of gender, orthographic, finger function and visual-motor processes to the prediction of handwriting status. Occupational Therapy Journal of Research, 20, 120–140.
55.
WickiW.LichtsteinerS. H.GeigerA. S.MüllerM. (2014). Handwriting fluency in children: Impact and correlates. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 73, 87–96. doi:10.1024/1421-0185/a000127
56.
World Health Organization. (2007). ICF-CY: International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health–Children and Youth Version. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
57.
YuT.-Y.HoweT.-H.HinojosaJ. (2012). Contributions of haptic and kinesthetic perceptions on handwriting speed and legibility for first and second grade children. Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools, & Early Intervention, 5(1), 43–60. doi:10.1080/19411243.2012.673320
