Suicide: Reframing the problem from the perspective of Durkheim

Professor Jorm (2019) recently demonstrated that increasing funding for suicide prevention programmes and mental health services made no impact on the suicide rate in Australia. In fact, the national rate has risen gradually over the last decade.

Professor Bastiampillai et al. (2020) responded, suggesting current ‘perceptions, beliefs and understanding of the problem’ (of suicide) ‘might need to be re-examined’. They suggested the concepts advanced by Durkheim (1952 [1897]) – in brief, that suicide is influenced by the culture (norms and values) of a group, their customs (ways of responding to circumstances) and disruptions imposed by external factors.

They argued Durkheim’s concepts explained variations in the Australian suicide rate from 1921 to 2017 (Harrison and Henley, 2014). They described three periods of deviation from the mean total suicide rate. The first was an increase during the Great Depression of the 1930s, the second was a reduction in the male suicide rate during World War II (WWII) and the third was a spike during the 1960s and early 1970s, which was attributed to barbiturate access (Harrison and Henley, 2014).

The increase in suicide during the Great Depression fits with sociological theory – the loss of resources leads to unemployment, poverty, family breakdown and loss of self-esteem. The individual is no longer adequately supported by (integrated into) society and the suicide rate increases. The decrease in suicide in Australia during WWII is consistent with decreases reported with most wars – there is a common enemy, a pulling together and greater integration of members of society – in the case of losses, grieving families receive private and public condolences and recognition.

The increased rate of suicide in ‘the sixties’ (which extended into the first half of the next decade) is not adequately explained by the availability of barbiturates (which relates to method) and sociological factors (motivation/triggers) have been overlooked.

The barbiturates had been continuously available following WWII. In 1960, chlordiazepoxide (benzodiazepine) was released (soon followed by diazepam), reducing the clinical need for barbiturates, and by 1967, strict limitations on the prescription of barbiturates had been imposed. Persuasively, during this period, death by exposure to gas markedly increased (Figure 7.1) and death by jumping doubled from 1964 to 1974 (Figure 8.2) – this was a time of increased suicide. At the zenith, barbiturates accounted for only 18% of female suicide, and while this was achieved after some years of increases, it was nevertheless a relatively small contribution to the total female suicide rate. Access to means is a piece of the suicide puzzle, and the dangers of barbiturates may have been underestimated, but they were not the ‘cause’ of the increased suicide rate in the ‘the sixties’.

Durkheim (1952 [1897]: 116) stated the suicide rate could rise in the setting of an ‘unpopular’ war – one which divided groups and families. During the Vietnam War (after preparation) troops went overseas in 1962, with the last returning in 1972. This was an unpopular war – not uncommonly, one brother marched in support of Australia’s involvement while another marched in a ‘moratorium’ (anti-war) protest. Returning soldiers were not welcomed in the usual celebratory manner. I was standing a couple of metres away in Melbourne in 1966 when the limousine of the US President LBJ was splattered with yellow paint – a unique response by Australians to the visiting head of state of an allied nation.

Although ‘the sixties’ in Australia are supposed to have been a time of joy and optimism – this was also a time of uncertainty and great social change – Aboriginal rights, second wave feminism, affordable fashion, the contraceptive pill and ‘Pot’ and other illegal drugs were the fuel of a robust counter-culture. The term/concept ‘generation gap’ appeared in 1962 to identify generational differences and survived for more than a decade.

In addition to war and conflicting pacifism, this was the era of ‘free-love’ and co-habitation without marriage. Germaine Greer’s highly commended ‘The Female Eunuch’ influenced attitudes around the world (not just at home). Young women raised in the conservative 1940s and 1950s were challenged by their sudden ‘liberation’ and expected to cast aside their ‘sexual inhibitions’. Young men had to ‘register for the draft’ and wait apprehensively to discover whether their ‘number’ was picked – a random selection of birthdates determined which young men would have to join the army (with the prospect of going to war).

This was the time when Australians began to travel. We had not travelled. As a defence against our lack of worldly sophistication, we took pride in that lack – we took pride in being ‘Ocker’ – we demonstrated our ‘patriotism’ by demonstrably limiting our horizons. We had not been schooled for revolution.

Professor Bastiampillai and his colleagues are to be saluted for suggesting the use of Durkheim’s beautiful concepts which can enable our understanding of ‘the sixties’ suicide spike (which featured a high level of female death).