The principal task of criminology is to produce the criminal as object-of-knowledge. Whether the sources of criminality are located in biology, psychology or culture — as in the various right realisms — or in the class, racist and sexist structures and values of societies — as in left realisms and the new criminologies of masculinities — the offender as object-of-knowledge generally emerges as young, impoverished, often black, usually male, and marginalised. The offender is portrayed as different, as Other. The article points out that “difference” is the central focus of criminology, and also a key motif in “affirmative postmodern” work aimed at reconstruction of theories of justice. Some emergent theories and practices of justice are mentioned, and it is argued that theories and institutions of justice need to bring together acknowledgement of difference, and elaboration and defence of rights.
BeckerH. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. New York:The Free Press.
3.
BenhabibS. (1986). Critique, norn and utopia. New York: Columbia University Press
4.
BernardT.J.SnipesJ.B. (1996). Theoretical integration in criminology. InTonryM.(Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research, vol20. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
5.
BraithwaiteJ.DalyK. (1994). Masculinities and communitarian control. InNewburnT.StankoE.(Eds.), Just boys doing business? Masculinities and crime. London: Routledge.
CarlenE (1990). Alternatives to women's imprisonment. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
8.
CarlenP.CookD.. (Eds.). (1989). Paying for crime. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
9.
Chesney-LindM.BloomB. (1997). Feminist criminology: Thinking about women and crime. InMacLeanB.D.MilanovicD.(Eds.), Thinking critically About crime. Vancouver: Collective Press.
10.
ChunnD. (1994). Sameness, difference and penal-welfare law. Paper presented at Law and Society Association Annual Meetings, June, Phoenix, USA.
11.
CohenS. (1972). Folk devils and morals panics. London: MacGibbon and Kee.
12.
CohenS. (1998). Intellectual scepticism and political commitment: The case of radical criminology. InWaltonP.YoungJ.(Eds.). The new criminology revisited. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
13.
CollierR. (1998). Masculinities, crime and criminology. London: Sage
14.
ConnellR.W. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person and sexual politics. Cambridge: Polity Press.
15.
CornishD.B.ClarkeR.V.G. (1986). Situational prevention, displacement of crime and rational choice theory. InHealK.LaycockG., (Eds.), Situational crime prevention: From theory into practice. London: HMSO.
16.
DalyK. (1994). Gender, crime and punishment, New Haven. Conn: Yale University Press.
17.
DershowitzA.M. (1997). Reasonable doubts: The criminal justice system and the O.J. Simpson case. New York: Touchstone.
18.
GarlandD. (1996). The limits of the sovereign state: Strategies of crime control in contemporary society, British Journal of Criminology, 36(4), 445–471
19.
GarlandD. (1997). Of crimes and criminals: The development of criminology in Britain. InMaguireM.MorganR.ReinerR., (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of criminology (2nd ed.) (pp. 11–56). Oxford; Clarendon Press.
20.
GarlandD. (2000). The culture of high crime societies: The social preconditions of the new politics of crime control, The British Journal of Criminology, 40.
21.
GottfredsonD.M.HirschiT.. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
22.
GrozE. (1987). Feminist theory and the challenge to knowledge, Women's Studies International Forum, 10(5), 208–217
23.
HabermasJ. (1984 & 1987). The theory of communicative action, vols. 1 and 2. Boston: Beacon Press.
24.
HabermasJ. (1996). Between facts and norms: Contributions to a discourse theory of law and democracy, trans.RehgW.. Cambridge: Polity Press.
25.
HudsonB. (1997). Social control. InMaguireM.MorganR.ReinerR., (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of criminology, (2nd ed) (pp, 451–472). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
26.
HudsonB. (1998a). Restorative justice: The challenge of sexual and racial violence, Journal of Law and Society, 25(2), 237–56.
27.
HudsonB. (1998b). Doing justice to difference. InAshworthA.WasikM.(Eds.), Fundamentals of sentencing theory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
28.
HudsonB. (2000, in press). Punishment, rights and difference: Defending justice in the risk society. InStensonK.SullivanR.(Eds.), Crime and the risk society. Cullompton, UK: Willan Publishing.
29.
HulsmanL. (1986). Critical criminology and the problem of crime, Contemporary Crises, 10,63–80.
30.
JeffersonT. (1997). Masculinities and crimes. InMaguireM.MorganR.ReinerR., (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of criminology, (2nd ed) (pp. 535–558).
31.
LemertE. (1967). Human deviance, social Problems and social control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
32.
LyotardJ.E (1984). The post-modemcondition: A report on knowledge, trans.BenningtonG.MassumiB.. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
33.
McCoyC. (1997). Sentencing (and) the underclass, Law and Society Review, 31(3), 589–612.
34.
MatzaD. (1964). Delinquency and drift. New York: John Wiley.
35.
MesserschmidtJ. (1993). Masculinities and crime. Lanham, MD.: Rowman and Littlefield.
36.
MinowM. (1990). Making all the difference. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
37.
MorganR.ClarksonC.M.V.. (Eds.). (1995). The politics of sentencing reform. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
38.
MurrayC. (1984). Losing ground. New York: Basic Books.
39.
NelkenD. (1994). Reflexive criminology?InNelkenD., The futures of criminology. London: Sage.
40.
NewburnT. (1995), Crime and criminal justice Policy, London: Longman,
41.
O’MalleyP. (1992), Risk, power and crime prevention, Economy and Society, 21(3),252–275.
42.
PasquinoP. (1991). Criminology: The birth of a special knowledge. InBurchellG.GordonC.MillerP.(Eds.), The Foucault effect: Studies in governmentality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
43.
PearsonG. (1975). The deviant imagination. London: Macmillan.
44.
PitchT. (1995). Limited responsibilities: Social movements and criminal justice, English edition. London:Routledge.
45.
PrattJ. (1995). Dangerousness, risk and technologies of power, The Australian and New Zealand Joumal of Criminology, 28, 3–31
46.
RawlsJ. (1972). A theory of justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
SimJ. (1990). Review of Bianchi and Van Swaaningen, 1986eds. Abolitionism: Towards a non-repressive approach to crime, International Journal of the Sociology of Law, 18, 97.
49.
SimJ. (1994). Tougher than the rest? Men in prison. InNewburnT.StankoE.A., (Eds.), Just boys doing business? Men, masculinities and crime. London: Routledge.
50.
SimonJ. (1996). Criminology and the recidivist. InSchicorD.SechrestD.K.(Eds.), Three strikes and you're out: Vengeance as public policy. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
51.
StankoE. (1990). Everyday violence: How women and men experience sexual and physical danger. London: Pandora.
52.
TadrosV. (1998). Between governance and discipline: The law and Michel Foucault, Oxford Joumal of Legal Studies4(Spring), 75–103.
53.
Van SwaaningenR. (1997). Critical criminology: Visions from Europe. London: Sage.
54.
WalklateS. (1995). Gender and crime: An introduction. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf.
55.
WestC.ZimmermanD.H. (1987). Doing gender, Gender and Society, 1(2), 125–51.
56.
WilsonJ.Q.HermsteinR. (1985). Crime and human nature. New York:Simon and Schuster.
57.
WindleshamLord (1993). Responses to crime. Vol. 2 penal policy in the making. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
58.
YoungI.M. (1990). Justice and the Politics of difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
59.
YoungJ. (1997). Left realist criminology: Radical in its analysis, realist in its policy. InMaguireM.MorganR.ReinerR.(Eds.), The Oxford handbook of criminology (2nd ed) (pp. 473–498). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
60.
ZimringF.E.HawkinsG. (1995). Incapacitation: Penal confinement and the restraint of crime. New York:Oxford University Press.
