Analytical Aspects of Antioxidants and Free Radical Activity in Clinical Biochemistry

Halliwell B. Free radicals, antioxidants, and human disease: Curiosity, cause or consequence. Lancet 1994; 344: 721–4.

Lunec J. Free radicals: Their involvement in disease processes. Ann Clin Biochem 1990; 27: 173–82.

Bates CJ . Vitamin analysis. Ann Clin Biochem 1997; 34: 599–626.

Swartz HM Swartz SM . Biochemical and biophysical applications of electron spin resonance. In: Glick D , ed. Methods of Biochemical Analysis, Vol 29. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1985. 207–323.

Pou S Hassett DJ Britigan BE Cohen MS Rosen GM . Problems associated with spin trapping oxygen-centred free radicals in biological systems. Anal Biochem 1989; 177: 1–6.

Rosen GM Halpern HJ . Spin trapping biologically generated free radicals: Correlating formation with cellular injury. Methods Enzymol 1990; 186: 611–21.

Kohn HI Liversedge M. On a new aerobic metabolite whose production by brain is inhibited by the apomorphine, emetine, ergotamine, epinephrine and menadione. J Pharm Expl Ther 1944: 82: 292–300.

Berheim F Berheim MLC Wilbur KM . The reaction between thiobarbituric acid and oxidation products of certain lipids. J Biol Chem 1948; 174: 257.

Sinnhuber RO Yu TC Yu TC . Characterisation of the red pigment formed in the 2-thiobarbituric acid determination of oxidative rancidity. Food Res 1958; 23: 626–34.

Dahle LK Hil EG Holman RT . The thiobarbituric acid reaction and autoxidations of polyunsaturated fatty acid methyl esters. Arch Biochim Biophys 1962; 98: 253–61.

Pryor WA Stanley JP Blair E. Autoxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids: II. A suggested mechanism for the formation of thiobarbituric acid reactive materials from prostaglandin like endoperoxides. Lipids 1976: 11: 370–9.

Esterbauer H Lang J Zadrevee S Slater TF . Detection of malondialdehyde by high performance liquid chromatography. Methods Enzymol 1984; 105: 319–28.

Largilliere C Malancon SB . Free malondialdehyde in human plasma by high performance liquid chromatography. Anal Biochem 1988; 170: 123–6.

Carbonneau MA Penchant E Sess D Canioni P Clere M. Free and bound malondialdehyde measured as thiobarbituric acid adduct by high performance liquid chromatography in serum and plasma. Clin Chem 1991; 37: 1423–9.

Draper HH Squires FJ Mahmoodi H Wu J Agarwals S Hadley M. A comparative evaluation of thiobarbituric acid methods for the determination of malondialdehyde in biological materials. Free Rad Biol Med 1993; 15: 353–63.

Halliwell B Gutterdige JMC . Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine, 2nd edn. London: Clarendon Press. 1989.

Gutteridge JMC Tickner TR . The characterisation of thiobarbituric acid reactivity in human plasma and urine. Anal Biochem 1978; 91: 250–7.

Gutteridge JMC Tickner TR . The thiobarbituric acid reactivity of bile pigments. Biochem Med 1978; 19: 127–32.

Knight JA Pieper RK McLellan L. Specificity of the thiobarbituric acid reaction: Its use in studies of lipid peroxidation. Clin Chem 1988; 34: 2433–8.

Smith JB Ingerman CM Silver MJ . Malondialdehyde formation as an indicator of prostaglandin production by human platelets. J Lab Clin Med 1976; 88: 166–72.

Samuelsson B. Leukotrienes: Mediators of immediate hypersensitivity reactions and inflammation. Science 1983; 220: 568–75.

Yagi K Nishigaki I Ohama H. Assay for lipoperoxide in blood serum. Vitamins 1968; 39: 105–9.

Slater TF Sawyer BC . The stimulatory effects of carbon tetrachloride and other halogeno-alkanes on peroxidative reactions in rat liver fractions in vitro . Biochem J 1971; 123: 805–14.

Satoh K. Serum lipid peroxide in cerebrovascular disorders determined by a new colorimetric method. Clin Chim Acta 1978; 90: 37–43.

Asakawa T Matsushita S. The thiobarbituric acid test for detecting lipid peroxides. Lipids 1979; 14: 401–6.

Yagi K. A simple fluorometric assay for lipid peroxide in blood plasma. Biochem Med 1976; 15: 212–6.

Richard MJ Portal B Meo J Coudray C Hadjian A Favier A. Malondialdehyde kit evaluated for determining plasma and lipoprotein fractions that react with thiobarbituric acid. Clin Chem 1992; 38: 704–9.

Wade CR Jackson PG Van Rij AM . Quantification of malondialdehyde in plasma by ion pairing reverse phase HPLC. Biochem Med 1985; 33: 291–6.

Nakishima K Ando K Nakamizo T Akiyama S. Development and application of organic reagents for analysis. V. High performance liquid chromatographic determination of lipoperoxides in biological fluids with 1,3-diphenyl-2-thiobarbituric acid. Chem Pharm Bull 1985; 33: 5380–4.

Therasse J Lemonnier F. Determination of plasma lipoperoxides by high performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr 1987; 413: 237–41.

Wong IS Knight JA Hopfer SM Zharia O Leach CN Sunderman FW . Lipoperoxides in plasma measured by liquid chromatographic separation of malonaldehyde-thiobarbituric acid adduct. Clin Chem 1987; 33: 214–20.

Tatum VL Changhit C Chow CK . Measurement of malondialdehyde by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Lipids 1990; 25: 226–9.

Young IS Trimble ER . Measurement of malondialdehyde in plasma by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorimetric detection. Ann Clin Biochem 1991; 28: 504–8.

Nielsen F Mikkelsen BB Nielsen JB Andersen HR Grandjean P. Plasma malondialdehyde as biomarker for oxidative stress: Reference interval and effects of life-style factors. Clin Chem 1997; 43: 1209–14.

Gutteridge JMC . The use of standards for malondialdehyde. Anal Biochem 1975; 69: 518–21.

Gutteridge JMC Quinlan JG . Malondialdehyde formation from lipid peroxides in the thiobarbituric acid test; the role of lipid radicals, iron salts and metal chelators. J Appl Biochem 1983; 5: 293–9.

Gutteridge JMC Winyard PG Blake DR Lunec J Brailsford S Halliwell B. The behaviour of caeruloplasmin in stored human extracellular fluids in relation to feroxidase II activity, lipid peroxidation and phenathroline-detectable copper. Biochem J 1985; 230: 517–23.

Stringer MD Gorog PG Freeman A Kakkar VV . Lipid peroxides and atherosclerosis. BMJ 1989; 298: 281–4.

Lee DM . Malondialdehyde formation in stored plasma. Biochim Biophys Res Comm 1980; 95: 1663–72.

Hendriks T Assman RFTA . On the fluorometric assay of circulating lipoperoxides. Clin Chim Acta 1988; 174: 263–70.

Knight JA Smith SE Kinder VE Anstall HB . Reference intervals for plasma lipoperoxides; age, sex and specimen related variations. Clin Chem 1987; 33: 2289–91.

Chirico S Smith C Marchant C Mitchinson MJ Halliwell B. Lipid peroxidation in hyperlipidaemic patients. A study of plasma using an HPLC-based thiobarbituric acid test. Free Rad Res Comm 1993; 91: 51–7.

Jentzsch AM Bachmann H Furst P Biesalski HK . Improved analysis of malondialdehyde in human body fluids. Free Rad Biol Med 1996; 20: 251–6.

Cramer LG Miller JF Pendleton RB Lands WE . Iodometric measurement of lipid hydroperoxides in human plasma. Anal Biochem 1991; 193: 204–11.

Jiang ZY Hung JV Wolff SP . Ferrous ion oxidation in the presence of xylenol orange for detection of lipid hydroperoxide in low density lipoprotein. Anal Biochem 1992; 202: 384–9.

Gupta BL . Microdetermination techniques for hydrogen peroxide in irradiated solution. Microchem J 1973; 18: 363–74.

Nouroog-Zadeh J Tajaddini-Sormadi J Wolff SP . Measurement of plasma hydroperoxide concentrations by the ferrous oxidation—xylenol orange assay in conjuction with triphenyl phosphine. Anal Biochem 1994; 220: 403–9.

Wolff SP . Ferrous ion oxidation in presence of ferric ion indicator xylenol orange for measurement of hydroperoxides. Methods Enzymol 1994; 233: 182–9.

Kneepkens CMF Lepage G Roy CC . The potential of the hydrocarbon breath test as a measure of lipid peroxidation. Free Rad Biol Med 1994; 17: 127–60.

Mendis S Sobotka PA Eular DE . Pentane and isoprene in expired air from humans: Gaschromatographic analysis of single breath. Clin Chem 1994; 40: 1485–8.

Bahdra S Arshad MAQ Rymazewski A Norman E Subbiah MTR . Peroxidation of cholesterol moiety of low density lipoproteins in the presence of human endothelial cells or Cu⁺⁺ ions: Identification of major products and their effects. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 1991; 176: 431–40.

Arshad MAQ Bhadra S Cohen RM Subbiah MTR . Plasma lipoprotein peroxidation potential: A test to evaluate-individual susceptibility to peroxidation. Clin Chem 1991; 37: 1756–8.

Addis PB Emanuel HA Bergman SD Zavoral JH . Capillary GC quantification of cholesterol oxidation products in plasma lipoproteins of fasted humans. Free Rad Biol Med 1989; 7: 179–82.

Subbiah MTR Yunker RL . Evidence for the presence of non-lipoprotein factors in diabetic serum capable of stimulating rat hepatic cholesterol 7 alpha hydroxylase in vitro . Biochem Biophys Res Comm 1984; 121: 743–8.

Awad JA Morrow JD Takahashi K Roberts LJ . Identification of non-cyclooxygenase-derived prostanoid (F2-lsoprostane) metabolites in human urine and plasma. J Biol Chem 1993; 268: 4161–9.

Morrow JD Frei B Atkinson WL Gaziano JM Lynch SM Shyr Y Increase in circulating products of lipid peroxidation (F2-Isoprostanes) in smokers. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 1198–2203.

Recknagel OR Ghoshal AK . Quantitative estimation of peroxidative degeneration of rat liver microsomal and mitochondrial lipids after carbon tetrachloride poisoning. Exp Mol Pathol 1966; 5: 413–26.

Recknagel OR Ghoshal AK . Lipoperoxidation as a vector in carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity. Lab Invest 1966; 15: 132–48.

Lunec J Dormandy TL . Fluorescent lipid peroxidation products in synovial fluid. Clin Sci Mol Med 1979; 56: 53–9.

Lunec J Halloran SP White AG Dormandy TL . Free radical oxidation products in serum and synovial fluid. J Rheumatol 1981; 8: 233–45.

Jennings PE Jones AF Florkowski CM Lunec J Barnett AH . Increased diene conjugates in diabetic subjects with microangiopathy. Diabetic Med 1987; 4: 452–6.

Corongiu FP Milia A. An improved and simple method for determining diene conjugation in autoxidised polyunsaturated fatty acids. Chem Biol Interactions 1983; 44: 289–97.

Situnayake RD Crump BJ Zezulka AV Davis M McConkey B Thurnham DI . Measurement of conjugated dienes by derivative spectroscopy in heptane extracts of plasma. Ann Clin Biochem 1990; 27: 258–66.

Folch J Lees M Sloane-Stanley GH . A simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipids from animal tissue. J Biol Chem 1957; 226: 497–509.

Iversen SA Cawood P Madigan MJ Lawson AM Dormandy TL . Identification of a diene conjugated component of human lipid as octadeca −9, 11-dienoic acid. FEBS Lett 1984; 171: 320–4.

Iversen SA Cawood P Dormandy TL . A method for the measurement of a diene-conjugated derivative of linoleic acid, 18:2(9,11), in serum phospholipid, and possible origins. Ann Clin Biochem 1985; 22: 137–40.

Thompson S Smith MT . Measurement of the diene conjugated form of linoleic acid in plasma by high performance liquid chromatography: A questionable non-invasive assay of free radical activity? Chem Biol Interactions 1985; 55: 357–66.

Britton M Fong C Wickens D Yudkin J. Diet as a source of phospholipid esterified 9,11-octadeca-dienoic acid in humans. Clin Sci 1992; 83: 97–101.

Fletcher BL Tappel AL . Fluorescent modification of serum albumin by lipid peroxidation. Lipids 1971; 6: 172–5.

Gutteridge JMC Wilkins S. Copper salt dependent hydroxyl radical formation. Damage to proteins acting as antioxidants. Biochem Biophys Acta 1983; 759: 38–41.

Lunec J. Fluorescence as a marker of free radical damage induced in human globulins. Biochem Soc Trans 1982; 10: 21.

Wickens DG Norden AG Lunec J Dormandy TL . Fluorescent changes in human gamma globulin induced by free radical activity. Biochem Biophys Acta 1983; 742: 607–16.

Lunec J Blake DR McCleary SJ Brailsford S Bacon PA . Self perpetuating mechanisms of immunoglobulin G aggregation in rheumatoid inflammation. J Clin Invest 1985; 76: 2084–90.

Jones AF Jennings PE Wakefield A Winkles WJ Barnett AH . Fluorescence of albumin and immunoglobulin G measured by HPLC with fluorescence detection. Diabetic Med 1988; 5: 547–51.

Wolff SP Garner A Dean RT . Free radicals, lipids and protein degradation. TIBS 1986; 11: 27–31.

Levine RL Garland D Oliver CN Amici A Climent I Lenz AG Determination of carbonyl content in oxidatively modified proteins. Methods Enzymol 1990; 186: 464–78.

Wolff SP Dean RT . Fragmentation of protein by free radicals and its effect on their susceptibility to enzyme hydrolysis. Biochem J 1986; 234: 399–403.

Pacifici E Davies KJA . Protein degradation as an index of oxidative stress. Methods Enzymol 1990; 186: 485–502.

Halliwell B Gutteridge JMC Cross C-E. Free radicals, antioxidants, and human disease: Where are we now? J Lab Clin Med 1992; 119: 598–620.

Blount S Griffiths HR Lunec J. Reactive oxygen species damage to DNA and its role in systemic lupus erythematosus. Molec Aspects Med 1991; 12: 93–105.

Tagesson C Kallberg M Klintenberg C Starkhammer H. Determination of urinary 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine by automated coupled column high performance liquid chromatography: A powerful technique for assaying in vivo oxidative DNA damage in cancer patients. Eur J Cancer 1995; 31A: 934–40.

Ames BN Cathcart R Scwiers E Hochstein P. Uric acid provides an antioxidant defence in humans against oxidant and radical caused ageing and cancer; a hypothesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981; 78: 6858–62.

Kaur H Halliwell B. Action of biologically relevant oxidising species upon uric acid. Identification of uric acid oxidation products. Chem Biol Interact 1990; 73: 235–67.

Cross CE Motchnick PA . Bruener BA. Oxidative damage to plasma constituents by ozone. FEBS Lett 1992; 298: 269–72.

Grootveld M Halliwell B. Measurement of allantoin and uric acid in human body fluids. A potential index of free radical activity in vivo? Biochem J 1987; 243: 803–8.

Floyd RA Watson JJ Wong PK . Sensitive assay of hydroxyl free radical formation utilizing high pressure liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection of phenol and salicylate hydroxylation products. J Biochem Biophys Meth 1984; 10: 221–35.

Grootveld M Halliwell B. Aromatic hydroxylation as a potential measure of hydroxyl-radical formation in vivo. Biochem J 1986; 237: 499–504.

Grootveld M Halliwell B. 2,3-Dihydroxybenzoic acid is a product of human aspirin metabolism. Biochem Pharmacol 1988; 37: 271–80.

Ingelman-Sundberg M Kaur H Terelius Y Persson J-O Halliwell B. Hydroxylation of salicylate by microsomal fractions and cytochrome P-450. Biochem J 1991; 276: 753–7.

Brigelius R Lenzen R Sies H. Increase in hepatic mixed disulphides and glutathione disulphide level elicited by paraquat. Biochem Pharmacol 1982; 31: 1637–41.

Ellman GL . Tissue sulphydryl groups. Arch Biochem Biophys 1959; 82: 70–7.

DiMonte M Ross D Bellomo G Eklow L Orrenius S. Alterations in intracellular thiol homoeostasis during the metabolism of menadione in isolated rat hepatocytes. Arch Biochem Biophys 1984; 235: 334–42.

Tietze F. Enzymic method for the quantitative determination of nanogram amounts of total and oxidised glutathione. Anal Biochem 1969; 27: 502–22.

Hughes H Jaeschke H Mitchell JR . Measurement of oxidant stress in vivo. Methods Enzymol 1990; 186: 681–5.

Griffith OW . Determination of glutathione and glutathione disulphide using glutathione reductase and 2-vinylpyridine. Anal Biochem 1980; 106: 207–12.

Teare JP Punchard NA Powell JJ Lumb PJ Mitchell WD Thompson RPH . Automated spectrophotometric method for determining oxidised and reduced glutathione in liver. Clin Chem 1993; 39: 686–9.

Reed DJ Babson JR Beatty PW Brodie AE Ellis WW Potter DW . High performance liquid chromatography analysis of nanogram levels of glutathione, glutathione disulphide and related thiols and disulphides. Anal Biochem 1980; 106: 55–62.

Harvey PRC Ilson RG Strasburg SM . The simultaneous determination of oxidised and reduced glutathiones in liver tissue by ion pairing reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography with a coulometric detector. Clin Chim Acta 1989; 180: 203–12.

Andersson A Isaksson A Brattstrom A Hultberg B. Homocysteine and other thiols determined in plasma by HPLC and thiol-specific post column derivatization. Clin Chem 1993; 39: 1590–7.

Leroy P Nicholas A Wellman M Michelet F Oster T Siest G. Evaluation of O-phthalaldehyde as bifunctional fluorogenic post-column reagent for glutathione in LC. Chromatographia 1993; 36: 130–4.

Michelet F Gueguen R Leroy P Wellman M Nicholas A Siest G. Blood and plasma glutathione measured in healthy subjects by HPLC: Relation to sex, aging, biological variables, and life habits. Clin Chem 1995; 41: 1509–17.

Richie JP Jr Skowronski L Abraham P Leutzinger Y. Blood glutathione concentrations in a large-scale human study. Clin Chem 1996; 42: 64–70.

Kasparek S. In: Machlin LJ , ed. Chemistry of Tocopherols and Tocotrienols in Vitamin E: A Comprehensive Treatise. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc, 1980.

Horwitt MK . The term alpha-tocopherol should not be used without clarification. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54: 760.

Gutteridge JMC Halliwell B. In: Antioxidants in Nutrition, Health and Disease. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994: 53–4.

Thompson JN Erdody P Maxwell WB . Simultaneous fluorometric determinations of vitamins A and E in human serum and plasma. Biochem Med 1973; 8: 403–11.

Catignani GL Bieri JG . Simultaneous determination of retinol and alpha-tocopherol in serum or plasma by liquid chromatography. Clin Chem 1983; 29: 708–12.

Nierenberg DW Lester DC . Determination of vitamins A and E in serum and plasma using a simplified clarification method and high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr 1985; 345: 275–84.

Miller KW Yang CS . An isocratic high-performance liquid chromatography method for the simultaneous analysis of plasma retinol, alpha-tocopherol, and various carotenoids. Anal Biochem 1985; 145: 21–6.

Huang ML Burckart GJ Venkataramanan R. Sensitive high-performance liquid chromatographic analysis of plasma vitamin E and vitamin A using amperometric and ultraviolet detection. J Chromatogr 1986; 380: 331–8.

Arnaud J Fortis I Blachier S Kia D Favier A. Simultaneous determination of retinol, alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene in serum by isocratic high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr 1991; 572: 103–16.

Gunter EW Driskell WJ Yeager PR . Stability of vitamin E in long-term stored serum. Clin Chim Acta 1988; 175: 329–36.

Hsing AW Comstock GW Polk BF . Effect of repeated freezing and thawing on vitamins and hormones in serum. Clin Chem 1989; 35: 2145.

Edmonds BK Nierenberg DW . Serum concentrations of retinol, d-alpha-tocopherol and Beta-carotene: Effects of storage at − 70°C for five years. J Chromatogr 1993; 614: 169–74.

Sierra C Pastor MC de Ramón M. Liquid chromatography determination of alpha-tocopherol in erthyrocytes. Clin Chim Acta 1992; 208: 119–26.

Riemersma RA Wood DA MacIntyre CCA Elton RA Gey KF Oliver MF . Risk of angina pectoris and plasma concentrations of vitamin A, C and E and carotene. Lancet 1991; 337: 1–5.

Behrens WA Thompson JN Madère R. Distribution of α-tocopherol in human plasma lipoproteins. Am J Clin Nutr 1982; 35: 691–6.

Thurnham DI Davies JA Crump BJ Situnayake RD Davis M. The use of different lipids to express serum tocopherol: Lipid ratios for the measurement of vitamin E status. Ann Clin Biochem 1986; 23: 514–20.

Levine M. New concepts in the biology and biochemistry of ascorbic acid. N Engl J Med 1986; 314: 892–902.

Sauberlich H Goad WC Skala JH Waring PP . Procedure for mechanised (continuous-flow) measurement of serum ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Clin Chem 1976; 22: 105–10.

Cammack J Oke A. Adams RN. Simultaneous high performance liquid chromatographic determination of ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid in biological samples. J Chromatogr 1991; 565: 529–32.

Liau LS Lee BL New AL Ong CN . Determination of plasma ascorbic acid by high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet and electrochemical detection. J Chromatogr 1993; 612: 63–70.

Parviainen MT Myyosönen K Penttilä IM Seppänen K Raureman R Salonen JTS A method for routine assay of plasma ascorbic acid using high-performance liquid chromatography. J Liq Chromatogr 1986; 9: 2185–97.

Dhariwal KR Hartzell WO Levine M. Ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid measurements in human plasma and serum. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54: 712–6.

Margolis SA Paule RC Ziegler RG . Ascorbic and dehydroascorbic acids measured in plasma preserved with dithiothreitol or metaphosphoric acid. Clin Chem 1990; 36: 1750–5.

Bradley DW Emery G Maynaud JE . Vitamin C in plasma: A comparative study of the vitamin stabilised trichloroacetic acid or metaphosphoric acid and the effects of storage at − 70, −20, 4°, and 25° on the stabilised vitamin. Clin Chim Acta 1973; 44: 47–52.

Margolis SA Davis TP . Stabilization of ascorbic acid in human plasma, and its liquid-chromatographic measurement. Clin Chem 1988; 34: 2217–23.

Bode AM Cunningham L Rose RC . Spontaneous decay of oxidised ascorbic acid (Dehyro-L-Ascorbic acid) evaluated by high-pressure liquid chromatography. Clin Chem 1990; 36: 1807–9.

Löwik MRH Schrijer J Wedel M. Vitamin C analysis in whole blood, plasma and cells using reduced glutathione as preservative (stabilizer): Losses and distribution. Int J Vit Nutr Res 1991; 61: 43–5.

Parviainen MT Salonen JT . Vitamin C status of 54-year-old eastern Finnish men throughout the year. Int J Vit Nutr Res 1990; 60: 47–51.

Jacob RA Skala JH Omaye ST . Biochemical indices of human vitamin C status. Am J Clin Nutr 1987; 46: 818–26.

Milne DB Botnen J. Retinol, α-tocopherol, lycopene, and α- and β-carotene simultaneously determined in plasma by isocratic liquid chromatography. Clin Chem 1986; 32: 874–6.

Thurnham DI Smith E Flora PS . Concurrent liquid-chromatographic assay of retinol, α-tocopherol, β-carotene, α-carotene, lycopene, and β-cryptoxanthin in plasma, with tocopherol acetate as internal standard. Clin Chem 1988; 34: 377–81.

Krinsky NI . Antioxidant functions of carotenoids. Free Rad Biol Med 1989; 7: 617–35.

Craft NE Brown ED Smith JC . Effects of storage and handling conditions on concentrations of individual carotenoids, retinol and tocopherol in plasma. Clin Chem 1988; 34: 44–8.

Thurnham DI Flora PS . Stability of individual carotenoids, retinol, and tocopherol in stored plasma. Clin Chem 1988; 34: 1947.

Gregory J Foster K Tyler H Wiseman M. In: The Dietary and Nutritional Survey of British Adults. London: HMSO, 1990.

Rushin WG Catignani GL Schwartz SJ . Determination of β-carotene and its cis isomers in serum. Clin Chem 1990; 36: 1986–9.

Miller H. Relationship between catalase and haemoglobin in human blood. Biochem J 1958; 68: 275–82.

Góth L. Serum catalase: Reversibly formed charge isoform of erythrocyte catalase. Clin Chem 1991; 37: 2043–7.

Beers RF Sizer IW . A spectrophotometric method for measuring the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide by catalase. J Biol Chem 1952; 95: 133–40.

Van Lente F Pepoy M. Coupled-enzyme determination of catalase activity in erythrocytes. Clin Chem 1990; 36: 1339–43.

Yasmineh WG Chung M-Y Caspers JI . Determination of serum catalase activity on a centrifugal analyzer by an NADP/NADPH coupled enzyme reaction system. Clin Biochem 1992; 25: 21–7.

Góth L. A simple method for determination of serum catalase activity and revision of reference range. Clin Chim Acta 1991; 196: 143–52.

Lamoureux G Bourdeau S Dubois G Charbonneau R Gagnon M Grad BR . A rapid method for determining catalase in human blood. Clin Chim Acta 1987; 167: 105–11.

Guemouri L Artur Y Herbeth B Jeanel C Cuny G Siest G. Biological variability of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase in blood. Clin Chem 1991; 37: 1932–7.

Avissar N Whitin JC Allen PZ Palmer IS Cohen HJ . Antihuman plasma glutathione peroxidase antibodies: Immunologic investigations to determine plasma glutathione peroxidase protein and selenium content in plasma. Blood 1989; 73: 318–23.

Lockitch G. Selenium: Clinical significance and analytical concepts. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 1989; 27: 483–541.

Takahashi K Cohen HJ . Selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase protein and activity: Immunological Investigations on cellular and plasma enzymes. Blood 1986; 68: 640–5.

Paglia DE Valentine WN . Studies on the quantitative and qualitative characterization of erthyrocyte glutathione peroxidase. J Lab Clin Med 1967; 70: 158–69.

Ceballos-Picot I Trivier J-M Nicole A Sinet PM Thevenin M. Age-correlated modifications of copper-zinc superoxide dismutase and glutathione-related enzyme activities in human erythrocytes. Clin Chem 1992; 38: 66–70.

McMaster D Bell N Anderson P Love AHG . Automated measurement of two indicators of human selenium status, and applicability to population studies. Clin Chem 1990; 36: 211–6.

Hopkins J Tudhope GR . Glutathione peroxidase in human red cells in health and disease. Br J Haem 1973; 25: 563–75.

Capel ID Jenner M Williams DC Donaldson D Nath A. The effect of prolonged oral contraceptive steroid use on erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase activity. J Steroid Biochem 1981; 14: 729–32.

Ursini F Bindoli A. The role of selenium peroxidases in the protection against oxidative damage of membranes. Chem Phys Lipids 1987; 44: 255–76.

Gutteridge JMC . Superoxide dismutase (Erythrocuprein) and free radicals in clinical chemistry. Ann Clin Biochem 1976; 13: 393–8.

McCord JM Fridovich I. Superoxide dismutase, an enzymic function for erythocuprein. J Biol Chem 1969; 244: 6049–55.

Weisiger RA Fridovich I. Mitochondrial superoxide dismutase. Site of synthesis and intramitochondrial localisation. J Biol Chem 1973; 248:4793–6.

Marklund SL Holme E Hellner L. Superoxide dismutase in extracellular fluids. Clin Chim Acta 1982; 126: 41–51.

Goldstein S Michel C Bors W Saran M Czapski G. A critical re-evaluation of some assay methods for superoxide dismutase activity. Free Rad Biol Med 1988; 4: 295–303.

Bolann BJ Ulvik J. Improvement of a direct spectrophotometric assay for routine determination of superoxide dismutase. Clin Chem 1991; 37: 1993–9.

Kurobe N Suzuki F Okajima K Kato K. Sensitive enzyme immunoassay for human Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase. Clin Chim Acta 1990; 187: 11–20.

Kurobe N Inagaki T Kato K. Sensitive enzyme immunoassay for human Mn superoxide dismutase. Clin Chim Acta 1990; 192: 171–80.

Adachi T Ohta H Yamada H Futenma A Kato K Hirano K. Quantitative analysis of extracellular-superoxide dismutase in serum and urine by ELISA with monoclonal antibody. Clin Chim Acta 1992; 212: 89–102.

Strange RC Jones P Bicknell J Scarpello J. Expression of Cu Zn-superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase in erythrocytes from diabetic and non-diabetic subjects. Clin Chim Acta 1992; 207: 261–3.

Gutteridge JMC . Antioxidant properties of caeruloplasmin towards iron- and copper-dependent oxygen radical formation. FEBS 1983; 157: 37–40.

Gutteridge JMC . In: Antioxidant Activity of Caeruloplasmin. In: CRC Handbook of Methods for Oxygen Radical Research. London: CRC Press, 1987: 303–7.

Goldstein IM Kaplan HB Edelson HS Weissmann G. Caeruloplasmin. A scavenger of superoxide anion radicals. J Biol Chem 1979; 254: 4040–5.

Sato M Schilsky ML Stockert RJ Morell AG Sternlieb I. Detection of multiple forms of human ceruloplasmin. J Biol Chem 1990; 265: 2533–7.

Evans PJ Bomford A Halliwell B. Non-caeruloplasmin copper and ferroxidase activity in mammalian serum. Ferroxidase activity and phenanthroline-detectable copper in human serum in Wilson's disease. Free Rad Res Comm 1989; 7: 55–62.

Winyard PG Hider RC Brailsford S Drake AF Lunec J Blake DR . Effects of oxidative stress on some physicochemical properties of caeruloplasmin. Biochem J 1989; 258: 435–45.

Schosinsky KH Lehmann HP Beeler MF . Measurement of ceruloplasmin from its oxidase activity in serum by use of o-dianisidine dihydrochloride. Clin Chem 1974; 20: 1556–63.

Mukerjee H. A kinetic method for determination of serum ceruloplasmin. Clin Chem 1990; 36: 391–2.

Johnson DA Osaki S Frieden E. A micromethod for the determination of ferroxidase (ceruloplasmin) in human serums. Clin Chem 1967; 13: 142–50.

Louro MO Tutor JC Paz JM . Serum and plasma ceruloplasmin in humans. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1989; 27: 511–3.

Miller NJ Rice-Evans C Gopinathan V Davies MJ Milner A. A new automated method for estimating plasma antioxidant activity and its application to the investigation of antioxidant status in premature neonates: In: Corongin F Banni S Dessi S Dessi MA Rice-Evans C , eds. Free Radicals and Antioxidants in Nutrition. London: Richelieu Press, 1993: 153–68.

Wayner DDM Burton GW Ingold KU Barclay LRC Locke SJ . The relative contributions of Vitamin E, urate, ascorbate and proteins to the total peroxyl radical-trapping antioxidant activity of human blood plasma. Biochim Biophys Acta 1987; 924: 408–19.

Miller NJ Rice-Evans C Davies MJ Gopinathan V Milner A. A novel method for measuring antioxidant capacity and its application for monitoring the antioxidant status in premature neonates. Clin Sci 1993; 84: 407–12.

Goode HF Richardson N Myers DS Howdle PD Walker BE Webster NR . The effect of anticoagulant choice on apparent total antioxidant capacity using three different methods. Ann Clin Biochem 1995; 32: 413–6.

Punchard NA Kelly FJ , eds Free Radicals: A Practical Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Young IS Purvis JA Lightbody JH Adgey AAJ Trimble ER . Lipid peroxidation and antioxidant status following thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J 1993; 14: 1027–33.

Dandona P Thusu K Cook S Synder B Makowski J Armstrong E Oxidative damage to DNA in diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1996; 347: 444–5.